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POPULAR HAND-BOOK 

OF THE 

NEW TESTAMENT, 



GEORGE GUMMING M c WH0RTER. 





NEW YORK: 

HARPER & BROTHERS, PUBLISHERS, 

FRANKLIN SQUARE. , 

18 64. 




£5 £33° 

.'rtss- 



Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year one thousand 
eight hundred and sixty-four, by 

Harper & Brothers, 

In the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the Southern District 
of New York. 



lk*j q ^ 



£l)e ittemorg of tno £att)cx, 
GEORGE H. M c WH0RTER, 

MY EARLY INSTRUCTOR 

EH THE 

GREEK TESTAMENT, 

THIS VOLUME IS 
AFFECTIONATELY INSCRIBED. 



PREFACE, 



In presenting this work to the public the author 
wishes entirely to disclaim all pretensions to origin- 
ality. Having examined the best authorities within 
his reach, and derived assistance from many, he must 
in justice acknowledge particular obligations to the 
works of Tregelles, Westcott, Wordsworth, Trench, 
and especially to the elaborate Greek Testament of 
Alford. The latter has been freely used and extens- 
ively quoted. 

This work, though theological in its character, and 
embracing to some extent the results of modern schol- 
arship, is not written for the professed theologian. 
To him are open the sources from which such a book 
must be derived. It is, as its name denotes, a Popu- 
lar Hand-Booh of the New Testament, and is adapted 
to the use of those who may possess neither time nor 
opportunity to consult original authorities. 



PREFACE. 



There are many upon whom devolves the duty of 
instructing the young in the New Testament, who 
must often have wished for some book containing in 
a concise form the information they require. There 
are others, doubtless, who would gladly seek a knowl- 
edge of the New Testament beyond that which the 
text affords without having recourse to voluminous 
Commentaries. For all such persons this work is 
intended. If it shall prove either a guide to the stu- 
dent, an aid to the teacher, or an incentive to any to 
more deeply consider the subject, and thus make the 
New Testament their own Book — the Book of their 
lives — the author will not be without a reward. 



CONTENTS. 



CHAPTER I. 

PAGE 

Introduction.— Mutual Relation of the Old and New Testaments. 
—The Word of God One 13 

CHAPTER II. 

The Genuineness, Authenticity, and Canonicity of the New Test- 
ament 17 

CHAPTER III. 

Inspiration of the New Testament. — Inspiration affirmed in 
Scripture, and proven by it. — Nature of it unrevealed. — The- 
ories. — Can not be defined. — Plenary and Sufficient. — Con- 
clusion 22 

CHAPTER IY. 

Sources of the Text. — Manuscripts. — Uncials. — Cursives. — Five 
great Codices. — Farther Account of the Manuscripts. — Num- 
ber and State. — Contain the whole of the New Testament. — 
Their substantial Integrity 31 

CHAPTER V. 

Greek Testament. — Erasmus. — Complutensian. — Stephens. — 
Elzevir. — Received Text. — Nearly identical with Erasmus. — 
Mill. — Bengel. — Wetstein. — Griesbach. — Scholz. — Davidson. 
— Tregelles. — Lachmann. — Tischendorf. — Muralt. — Alford ... 35 



Ylll CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER VI. 

PAGE 

Versions of the New Testament. — Peschito. — Egyptian or Cop- 
tic. — Gothic. — Ulfilas. — Vulgate and Italic. — Luther's. — Its 
Influence upon the German Language. 41 

CHAPTER VII. 

Saxon. — Anglo-Saxon. — St. Cuthbert's Gospel. — Rushworth's 
Gloss. — Bede's Anglo-Saxon Version. — English. — Wickliffe's 
Version. — Tyndale's. — Mathews's. — Cranmer's. — Geneva. — 
Account of the Subdivision of the Bible into Chapters and 
Verses. — Bishop's Version. — Parker's. — Thompson's. — 
Rheims. — King James Version — how made. — Authorized. — 
Eliot's Indian Version 46 

CHAPTER VIII. 

The Gospels. — Note upon Mode of calculating Time 54 

CHAPTER IX. 
St. Matthew's Gospel 61 

CHAPTER X. 
St. Mark's Gospel , 65 

CHAPTER XI. 
St. Luke's Gospel 70 

CHAPTER XII. 
St. John's Gospel 77 

CHAPTER XIII. 

The Acts of the Apostles. — List of the Apostles. — Genealogy of 
the Herods 86 

CHAPTER XIV. 

St. Paul.—The Epistles.— Style of St. Paul 96 



CONTENTS. ix 

CHAPTER XV. 



PAGE 



Epistle to the Romans 108 

CHAPTER XVI. 

First Epistle to the Corinthians « 121 

CHAPTER XVII. 

Second Epistle to the Corinthians 139 

CHAPTER XVIII. 
Epistle to the Galatians , 144 

CHAPTER XIX. 

Epistle to the Ephesians 151 

CHAPTER XX. 
Epistle to the Philippians 159 

CHAPTER XXI. 
Epistle to the Colossians 165 

CHAPTER XXII. 

First Epistle to the Thessalonians 172 

CHAPTER XXIII. 
Second Epistle to the Thessalonians 178 

CHAPTER XXIV. 
First Epistle to Timothy...., 182 

CHAPTER XXV. 

Second Epistle to Timothy 191 



X CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER XXVI. 

PAGE 

Epistle to Titus 195 

CHAPTER XXVII. 
Epistle to Philemon 201 

CHAPTER XXVIII. 
Epistle to the Hebrews 205 

CHAPTER XXIX. 
Epistle of James 232 

CHAPTER XXX. 
First Epistle of Peter 244 

CHAPTER XXXI. 
Second Epistle of Peter 262 

CHAPTER XXXII. 
First Epistle of John 267 

CHAPTER XXXIII. 
Second and Third Epistles of John 275 

CHAPTER XXXIV. 
Epistle of Jude 279 * 

CHAPTER XXXV. 
The Revelation of St. John the Divine 285 

CHAPTER XXXVI. 
Conclusion 293 



Blessed Lord, who hast caused all holy Scripture to be 
written for our learning: grant that we may ln such wise 
hear them, read, mark, learn, and inwardly digest them, that 
by patience, and comfort of thy holy word, we may embrace, 
and ever hold fast the blessed hope of everlasting life, 

WHICH THOU HAST GIVEN US IN OUR SAVIOUR JeSUS CHRIST. AMEN. 



A POPULAR 

HAND-BOOK OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 



CHAPTER L 

INTRODUCTION. MUTUAL RELATION OF THE OLD AND NEW 

TESTA MENTS. — THE WORD OF GOD ONE. 

It is not the object of this work to furnish elaborate 
evidence of the genuineness, authenticity, canonicity, and 
inspiration of the New Testament. A thorough exhibition 
of the proofs, and a complete analysis of the arguments 
connected with these points, would exceed its limits and 
be foreign to its design. It is not a work upon the evi- 
dences of Christianity : it is intended for those who believe 
the Bible to be the written word of God — containing the 
revelation of His will — and would desire to be better in- 
formed concerning that Book, which is able to make them 
wise unto salvation. 

Although the present work especially relates to the New 
Testament, it by no means ignores the Old. The Bible is 
one ; its central fact is one ; its life is one, and that life is 
Christ. Of Him did Moses speak ; of Him did David 
sing ; of Him did the prophets prophesy. He is the be- 
ginning and the end of all revelation ; the whole of Scrip- 



14 A HAND-BOOK OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 

ture is one consentient voice to Christ ; the New Testa- 
ment is but the development of the Old. 

The authenticity and inspiration of the Old Testament 
must be first established. That has been done by irrefrag- 
able proofs and arguments, sufficient for all who are open 
to conviction or do not require a miracle in their especial 
behalf. A brief allusion to them will explain their nature 
and force. 

In the authentic records of profane history there is evi- 
dence of the existence and character of the Jewish nation, 
as much and as reliable as of any other of the nations of 
antiquity. Josephus furnishes a list of the books which 
that peculiar people considered holy and inspired. It is 
well known that they deemed them sacred oracles, and 
regarded them with an almost superstitious veneration. 
In their protection the utmost care was exhibited ; and in 
their preservation from error, in the process of transcrip- 
tion and multiplication, no pains or labor were spared. 
The words, the very letters, were numbered and registered, 
and every safeguard employed that the most watchful cau- 
tion could devise to insure their integrity and freedom 
from error. Besides, says St. Jerome, "The Lord and 
His Apostles, who prefer charges against the Scribes and 
Pharisees, in regard to this greatest of crimes — the corrupt- 
ing the sacred Scriptures — are entirely silent." Would 
they have omitted to notice such a sin ? There can be no 
reasonable doubt, then, that an authentic text of the He- 
brew Scriptures has been handed down. 

That these Scriptures were given by inspiration of God 
is manifest not only from abundant internal evidence which 



A HAND-BOOK OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 15 

can not be controverted, but from the literal fulfillment of 
the prophecies contained in them, especially of those which 
terminate in Jesus Christ. Their historic narratives have 
received, where the nature of the case admitted, from evi- 
dence discovered in the investigation of the ruins of Nine- 
veh and the tombs of Egypt, the fullest corroboration. 
Profane history in nowise contradicts them. Science has 
been invoked against them in vain. Geology now confesses 
that the records written on the tablets of the globe by the 
great water-floods, and preserved in the everlasting hills, 
are in perfect harmony with Holy Writ. The Hebraist 
and the astronomer unite to acknowledge that the Lord 
declared to Job from the whirlwind the revolution of the 
earth.* The more carefully these Scriptures are studied 
and examined, the more in accordance with history and 
science, the more consistent and harmonious are they 
found. The word and works of the Lord stand fast for- 
ever, f 

* Job xxxviii. 14 is rendered by Mr. Carey, in his elaborate work 
on Job : 

"It turneth round like a seal of clay, 
And things stand out as though in dress. 1 ' 

Mr. Carey is correct. Both in Assyria and Egypt these clay seals 
are found. They haye their designs in relief upon the tire, and 
when used were rolled over the wax, or whatever was intended to 
receive the impression. Thus objects "stand out" as the light of 
the sun falls upon them, and the revolution of the earth is demon- 
strated. 

f The Verity of the Pentateuch has been assailed by Bishop Co- 
lenso and others. The Bishop's work has attained notoriety through 
the prelatical dignity of the author. "But," says the Church Jour- 
nal, "the thoroughness with which, in various forms, the leading 
points made by Bishop Colenso have been exploded, and his igno- 
rance of, and his manifest and frequent disingenuousness have been 



16 A HAND-BOOK OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 

Christ, as has been before said, being the central fact of 
the Scriptures, the point to which and from which they 
extend, the New Testament is necessary to their perfec- 
tion. " The Apostles," saith Justin Martyr, " have taught 
us, as themselves did learn, first the precepts of the Law, 
and then the Gospels. For what else is the Law but the 
Gospel foreshadowed ? What other the Gospel than Law 
fulfilled ?" In .like sort Augustine : " What the Old Test- 
ament hath, the very same the New containeth ; but that 
which lieth there as under a shadow is here brought forth 
into the open sun. Things there prefigured are here per- 
formed." Again : " In the Old Testament there is a close 
comprehension of the New, in the New an open discovery 
of the Old.' 5 * The two Eecords complete and confirm 
each other. They are one — God's Word ivritten, 

" That all the mortals He hath made may learn." 

demonstrated." The spirit which prompts the Bishop, as Professor 
Mahan justly says, is " infidel," and the influence of such works can 
be but temporary. Like noxious exhalations they will disappear be- 
fore the rays of the sun of truth, and the value of the Holy Scrip- 
tures mil be the more appreciated as the Church's Record teaching 
redemption to fallen man through Jesus Christ. 
* Hooker, Book V. 



CHAPTER II. 

THE GENUINENESS, AUTHENTICITY, AND CANONICITY OP THE 
NEW TESTAMENT. 

The New Testament is the complement of the Old. It 
therefore possesses a sure testimony to its truth. Apart, 
however, from this verification are grounds, both inde- 
pendent and satisfactory, upon which the genuineness, au- 
thenticity, and canonicity of the New Testament securely 
rest. 

The genuineness of the New Testament depends upon 
the authorship of the several books of which it is com- 
posed being known ; or, in case the name of the author of 
one of them be lost, upon its being evidently written in 
good faith by a competent person. 

Except the Epistle to the Hebrews, the authorship of 
every book in the New Testament has been fully estab- 
lished. The name of the author of Hebrews has not been 
preserved. Cogent reasons exist for referring it to Apol- 
los, but absolute proof is wanting, and no certainty in re- 
gard to its author can be attained. It must be admitted, 
however, that this wonderful composition could only have 
flowed from one intimately acquainted with the Old Test- 
ament, and every thing appertaining to Judaism, and who 
was at the same time a faithful and fervent minister of 
Christ, 

B 



18 A HAND-BOOK OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 

The genuineness of the New Testament must therefore 
be conceded. 

The authenticity of the New Testament involves the gen- 
eral correctness of the text, and the substantial truth of 
the facts narrated. 

In regard to the text it must be said that the original 
manuscripts are not known to be in existence. Numer- 
ous copies of them have been preserved, all varying more 
or less. Notwithstanding this variation, there is a general 
agreement, and no one doctrine or fact of Christianity is 
in the slightest degree endangered by controverted opin- 
ions in regard to the text. The sublime mystery of the 
Holy Trinity — comprehending the Unity of the Godhead 
and the clear distinction of the Three Persons who com- 
pose it ; the Atonement — involving Christ, both as God 
and man ; the Two Sacraments — the signs and seals of 
the true Faith ; the Doctrine of Justification by Faith, of 
Eepentance, of Good Works as evidences of faith ; the 
pure and noble system of ethics elaborated in the Sermon 
on the Mount, and condensed in the Two Commandments 
of our Saviour ; all these, were every passage of Scripture 
that can be questioned with any degree of fairness, or re- 
gard for the rules of sound criticism, excluded from the 
text, all these would remain firm and unshaken — the im- 
mutable truths of the Gospel. 

The enemies of Christianity have denied the truth of 
the narratives of the Four Evangelists, and exhausted ev- 
ery device which human ability and animosity could in- 
vent to carry out their design ; but in every case they 
have been fully refuted. The attempts of Strauss to re- 



A HAND-BOOK OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 19 

duce the life of Christ to a myth, and the efforts of 13aur 
to overthrow the New Testament by casting doubt upon 
the text, have proven equally futile. Rationalism has done 
its utmost, but the authenticity of the New Testament has 
not been shaken. The evidences of it will abundantly ap- 
pear to all who may honestly undertake the labor of in- 
vestigation. 

The Canon of Scripture is the rule of revealed truth ; 
the measure which defines the limits within which revela- 
tion is comprised ; the summary of the Bible. The Canon 
of the Old Testament was settled by Ezra after the captiv- 
ity. Subsequent writings were termed Apocryphal, and 
rejected by the Jews. 

The New Testament Canon was formed gradually, and 
was the choicest fruit of the wisdom and care displayed 
by the Primitive Church in keeping that which had been 
intrusted to her. The traditions of the Apostles remained 
fresh, and exclusively authoritative, some years after the 
Apostles themselves had disappeared from the scene of 
their labors. As time went on pretensions were made in 
favor of writings hitherto unrecognized by authority, but 
valuable in themselves. The feelings of all were deeply 
interested in so important a subject as the definition and 
preservation of the Sacred Oracles. In this position of 
affairs the Fathers of the Church determined what was 
authentic and inspired, and declared the residue 'apocry- 
phal; thus dividing their writings, as the Jews formerly 
did theirs. Catalogues of the Apostolic Scriptures are 
recorded by the Fathers of the third and fourth centuries. 
Origen derives his from the " ancients ;" Eusebius refers 



20 A HAND-BOOK OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 

his to " ecclesiastical tradition ;" Athanasius declares his 
to proceed from " eye-witnesses and ministers of the Word 
from the beginning;" and St. Cyril claims the " Apostles" 
themselves as the authors of his. Their statements evince 
not only of how great importance they considered the mat- 
ter, but what care and attention they bestowed upon it. 
As they had no inducement to vary from the truth, but 
rather the most absorbing interest to adhere to it, and to 
preserve the integrity of the sacred oracles, their records 
may be relied upon ; and it may be safely assumed that a 
certain and continuous testimony from the earliest age 
was handed down by them. Could an error be supposed 
to have occurred, it would have arisen, not from the admis- 
sion, but from the too scrupulous rejection of a book ; which 
gives additional strength to the claims of those received. 

At the Ecumenical Council of Nice, a.d. 315, Constan- 
' tine, in his closing address, refers to the " Books of the Evan- 
gelists and Apostles as teachings of the most Holy Spirit." 

The Ecumenical Council of Constantinople, a.d. 381, 
embodied in its Creed the statement that Christ "rose 
again on the third day according to the Scriptures." No 
other Scriptures than those of the New Testament could 
have been meant. 

By the sixtieth Canon of the Provincial Council of La- 
odicea, a.d. 365, were defined the Books of the Old and 
New Testament. The Apocalypse is omitted from the list. 

The Provincial Council of Carthage, a.d. 397, declared 
all the Books now contained in the English Version of the 
New Testament to be canonical. 

The Apostolical Canons — a collection of canons made 



A HAND-BOOK OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 21 

from different Synods, it is supposed about the commence- 
ment of the third century — contain a list of a majority of 
the Books of the New Testament. The age and authority 
of these canons, however, remain unsettled, and they are 
not entitled to entire confidence, though some of them are 
doubtless quite ancient. 

The Canon of the New Testament, thus gradually formed 
and finally settled, was accepted by the Christian Church 
throughout the world, and has ever since been esteemed 
valid and obligatory. It is true the Romanist Council of 
Trent, in the sixteenth century, enlarged the Canon to serve 
their purposes, and endeavored to add to and corrupt the 
"Word of Life ; but the acts of that body are not binding 
on the consciences of Christians, and need not be considered. 

The Canon, perfected as abov^e stated, did not make 
Scripture : it only confirmed and defined what had been 
handed down as Scripture from the earliest age, and the 
sacredness of which had never been doubted. Its object 
was to determine limits by which unacknowledged and 
unauthoritative writings could be excluded, and those de- 
clared which had been recognized from the beginning, and 
could be henceforth appealed to as the final arbiter under 
all circumstances. It was a noble duty with which the 
Primitive Church was charged, and well and truly did she 
keep that which her Head intrusted to her. Under Him 
who is over all, to her belongs the honor due to the con- 
servation and preservation of the oracles of God. 

The genuineness, authenticity, and canonicity of the New 
Testament having been thus briefly presented, of not less 
importance to be considered is the question of inspiration. 



CHAPTER III. 

INSPIRATION OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. INSPIRATION AF- 
FIRMED IN SCRIPTURE, AND PROVEN BY IT. NATURE OF 

IT UNREVEALED. THEORIES. CAN NOT BE DEFINED. 

PLENARY AND SUFFICIENT. CONCLUSION. 

A response to the question of Inspiration must be 
sought in the New Testament itself. The authenticity of 
the latter having been shown, an appeal to it is warranted, 
and its voice should be heard. Its declaration is not only 
that all Scripture is gi^en by inspiration, but that it is 
profitable, and able to make men wise in what concerns 
their highest interest. To be able to do this, it must have 
proceeded from the Spirit of Truth ; for who, save the 
Spirit, who knoweth all things, can guide fallen men in the 
paths of virtue and wisdom? Internal evidence further 
confirms the claim in a variety of ways. The character 
of Christ ; His life ; His doctrines and teachings ; their 
benign and w r onderful influence upon man in every age; 
the sublimity and beauty of the Christian system ; the lives 
of the Apostles and Martyrs ; their commands and instruc- 
tions, in perfect agreement with those of their Divine Mas- 
ter ; the unforeseen and unarranged coincidences ; the gen- 
eral air of truth and candor; the harmony that reigns 
throughout the whole: all witness for the inspiration of 
the New Testament with a power and eloquence that can 



A HAND-BOOK OF THE NEW TESTAMENT.. 23 

not be either denied or resisted. Indeed, to suppose that 
such a work could be the fruit of man's device would be 
to require credence in something far more incomprehensi- 
ble than to believe it to be the result of inspiration. But 
the authenticity of the New Testament being conceded, its 
immediate acceptance and continued recognition by the 
Christian Church as the Word of God, from the earliest 
period to the present time, puts the matter beyond a ques- 
tion. No candid mind can doubt that the New Testament 
proceeded from the inspiration of that Beneficent Spirit 
who guides unto all truth, in direct fulfillment of the prom- 
ise of Christ : " When the Comforter is come, whom I will 
send unto you from the Father, even the Spirit of Truth, 
which proceedeth from the Father, he shall testify of me : 
and ye also shall bear witness, because ye have been w T ith 
me from the beginning." What further testimony is 
needed? 

The New Testament is silent in regard to the nature of 
its inspiration. As upon such a subject nothing can be 
known except what is revealed or evident from the case 
itself, the nature of inspiration must remain forever unex- 
plained. Notwithstanding, the question has been much 
speculated upon, and two theories w r ith reference to it have 
principally obtained. 

The first is the Verbal Theory. It claims that every 
word is inspired, or that the waiters were but mouth-pieces 
of the Holy Spirit. " I believe," says Tregelles, " the six- 
ty-six books of the Old and New Testaments to be verbal- 
ly the Word of God, as absolutely as w r ere the Ten Com- 
mandments w r ritten by the finger of God upon the two ta- 



24 A HAND-BOOK OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 

bles of stone." Serious objections to this theory can be 
easily shown to exist. 

It destroys the individuality of the respective writers : 
an individuality which is apparent to every fair-minded 
critic, and accounts for a variety exhibited in the treat- 
ment of subjects, which would otherwise be inexplicable. 
" We do not," says Alford, " find the Apostles transformed, 
from being men of individual character, and thought and 
feeling, into mere channels for the transmission of infalli- 
ble truth. We find them, humanly speaking, to have been 
still distinguished by the same characteristics as before 
the descent of the Holy Ghost. We see Peter still ar- 
dent and impetuous, still shrinking from the danger of 
human disapproval ; we see John still exhibiting the 
same union of deep love and burning zeal ; we find them 
pursuing different paths of teaching, exhibiting different 
styles of writing, taking hold of the truth from different 
sides." 

Discrepancies also exist, which the verbal theory fails to 
elucidate. 1. Compare the healing of the blind, recorded 
in Matt., xx. 29-34 ; Mark, x. 46-52 ; Luke, xviii. 35-43. 
There is hardly a doubt that the three writers refer to the 
same miracle ; and yet how differently it is related, though 
concurring in the leading fact. " He must be indeed," says 
Olshausen, " a slave to the letter who would stumble at 
such discrepancies, and not rather see in them the cor- 
roborating coincidence of testimonies to the fact itself. 
2. Compare Matt., xxvii. 7, and Acts, i. 18. In the first, 
they— the chief priests, verse 6 — purchased the field ; in 
the second, he — Judas — purchased it ; but in both state- 



A HAND-BOOK OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 25 

ments the main fact is preserved, as in the case of the mir- 
acle. 3. The title over the cross runs thus : 

Matt., xxvii. 37: This is Jesus the King of the Jews. 

Mark, xvi. 26 : The King of the Jews. 

Luke, xxiv. 38: This is the King of the Jews. 

John, xix. 19 : Jesus of Nazareth the Ktng of the Jews. 

The cardinal fact is not weakened by the variation, but, 
on the contrary, enforced by the quadruple inscription. 
What, however, becomes of the verbal theory 1 

A last objection to the theory is, that the original man- 
uscripts, in the wisdom of God, having been allowed to 
perish, nothing but another revelation would furnish satis- 
factory evidence that an accurate copy of them could be 
compiled from a collation of the transcripts that remain. 
A single error would be fatal to so exacting a principle ; 
and as a miracle can not be predicated in support of the 
purest text which the most elaborate scholarship might 
produce, the verbal theory may be fairly dismissed as un- 
tenable. 

The second theory of inspiration may be termed the 
Theory of Superintendence. By which is understood : — 
an influence exerted upon the mind of the writer, which 
suggests what it is necessary he should know, but what he 
could not know of himself; recalls what he has forgotten ; 
quickens what remains; and so guides and controls the 
commissioned writer, that he can not err in any thing that 
relates to his commission or that which is intrusted to 
him. It enables him, under the energizing influence of 
the Holy Spirit, to reveal what God's purpose requires 
should be revealed ; to teach and preach, in season, the 



2G A HAND-BOOK OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 

Word of His grace ; to record, for all time, whatsoever he 
may have witnessed or received ; and to unfold whatever 
is profitable for doctrine, for reproof, for correction, for in- 
struction in righteousness, in order that man may be thor- 
oughly furnished to glorify God, through Christ his Sav- 
iour. A distinction is made between revelation and in- 
spiration, but both result from the action of the same 
Spirit working through the natural intelligence. The 
Spirit and the man co-operate. 

" The plenary inspiration of the sacred writers," says Al- 
ford, " consisted in the fullness of the influence of the Holy 
Spirit specially raising them to, and enabling them for, 
their work, in a manner ivhich distinguishes them from all 
other writers in the ivorld, and their work from all other worJcs. 
The men were full of the Holy Ghost — the books are the 
pouring out of that fullness through the men — the con- 
servation of the treasure in earthen vessels. The treasure 
is ours, in all its richness : but it is ours as only it can be 
ours — in the imperfections of human speech, in the limita- 
tions of human thought, in the variety incident first to in- 
dividual character, and then to manifold transcription and 
the lapse of ages. The men were inspired, the books are 
the results of that inspiration." 

Plenary inspiration to the fullest extent is affirmed in 
the above passage; but no explanation is afforded of the 
mode, the way, in which the inspiration acts. Indeed 
Scripture, from which all correct views on the subject must 
be derived, and from which there can be no appeal, while 
it convincingly maintains the fact of its own inspiration, is 
entirely silent with respect to the hidden operation of the 



A HAND-BOOK OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 27 

power. It may therefore be conceded, with proper defer- 
ence to all theorizers, in the words of Bishop "Williams, 
that "the construction of a complete and exhaustive the- 
ory of Inspiration is a simple impossibility." 

" What," says Bishop Wilberforce, " does Holy Scripture 
claim to be ! The word of God. The < Oracles of God' 
— God-breathed, 2 Tim., iii. 16 ; and what must this im- 
ply ? Surely that there is a mighty and mysterious pres- 
ence of God in His word. So much God's word declares : 
so much His Church has received: so much every faithful 
man believes. But if curiosity seeks for further insight — 
if the flesh asks to have the dividing line between the op- 
eration of the Divine and the Human in the inspired word 
marked sharply out, so as to meet all objections and an- 
swer all questions ; if it asks for a perfect theory of in- 
spiration — the answer must be that no perfect theory is 
possible, unless we would first fathom the infinite and re- 
duce to definite proportions the hidden nature of the un- 
fathomable Godhead. So far as we can conceive, a written 
revelation for man must be communicated through man, 
while it must, for its knowledge of much, for the certain 
accuracy of all the revelation, depend upon God as the 
Kevealer. There must therefore be combined in it the 
action of the two natures ; and if the two natures are both 
present and both in action, it must be beyond our power 
to have a perfect theory for that which is thus the united 
action of two powers — seeing that of the higher of those 
powers we know only what has been revealed to us as to 
its law and mode in combining its action with the lowest 
nature (which we do know), since nothing has been re- 



28 A HAND-BOOK OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 

vealed to us, we can know nothing. We are surrounded 
by mysteries of God's working which reveal themselves 
sufficiently to satisfy a humble faith; but which are an 
impenetrable barrier against proud curiosity, which ever- 
more leads men on to be as gods, knowing good and evil." 

Hence the Christian believer will not be disturbed by 
the failure of theories to account for and define inspira- 
tion, but will possess his soul in patience, satisfied with the 
word that God has given him, and content to receive it in 
the way God has vouchsafed it to him. He will not cavil 
about the mode of inspiration, assured of the fact. 

An attempt has been made to deduce from St. Paul's 
two statements in the seventh chapter of First Corinthians 
— verse 10, "And unto the married I command, yet not I, 
but the Lord," and verse 12, "But to the rest speak I, 
not the Lord"; — the conclusion that the Apostle did not 
always speak from inspiration ; that only part of what he 
said was inspired, and of course what was so spoken was 
entitled to much higher consideration than the other, thus 
involving the reader in the dilemma of having to ascertain 
what was inspired and what was not. The attempt, how- 
ever, has proved futile. St. Paul, in the first passage, re- 
fers to some command uttered by oar Saviour, while on 
earth,, in support of his words. In the second, he speaks 
with the authoritative voice of the inspired Apostle. The 
whole of the epistle is equally inspired. There is no dif- 
ference between any of the parts. All are entitled to the 
same consideration. 

The enemies of the Faith have likewise endeavored to 
invalidate St. Paul's claims to inspiration, from the fact 



A HAND-BOOK OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 29 

-that it may be inferred from the same chapter that he be- 
lieved that the time was short, that the end of the dispen- 
sation was approaching, and that the day of the Lord was 
at hand. This attempt has met with no better success than 
the former. He might have thought so, and might have 
been mistaken on such a subject, without prejudice to his 
inspiration. " Of that day," says our Lord, " knoweth no 
man, neither the Son, but the Father." It can hardly be 
supposed that he would know what the Father had de- 
termined to keep in his own power ; neither was it neces- 
sary to the exercise of his office that he should. All that 
was necessary, it is quite clear, he was very fully informed 
upon, so as not to come behind the chiefest of the apostles. 
Besides, the Day of the Lord is always u at hand" and the 
Apostle was only enforcing the command of his Master : 
"What I say unto you I say unto all, Watch." 

On the question of Inspiration, it may be justly con- 
cluded, then, that the whole of the Scriptures are inspired; 
and although the mode in which the Holy Ghost operates 
has not been revealed, and therefore can not be defined, 
yet it may be confidently affirmed that the inspiration is 
plenary, is sufficient, rendering the Scriptures the Word of 
God. 

The genuineness, authenticity, canonicity, and inspira- 
tion of the New Testament have thus been succinctly 
traced, in accordance with the design proposed, and have 
been established as fully as the limits of that design would 
permit. Enough has been said to confirm the faith of 
those who are disposed to believe, and to convince others 
who may have been too easily inclined to doubt. Those 



30 A HAND-BOOK OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 

who may desire to investigate so interesting and so import- 
ant a subject will find, upon a candid examination of the 
proper authorities, that the evidence adduced from them in 
support of the four points referred to has not been over- 
stated. 

But, above all that has been said, the faithful believer 
in the Lord Jesus has a testimony to the truth of the 
Bible, higher, and broader, and deeper than any thing that 
the most careful and earnest student can furnish. It is 
the witness of the Spirit in himself. The Spirit of God 
speaking to his spirit and telling him these things are so. 
Let him give heed to that still voice, for he is taught of 
God. 



CHAPTER IV. 

SOURCES OF THE TEXT. MANUSCRIPTS. — UNCIALS- CUR- 
SIVES. FIVE GREAT CODICES. FARTHER ACCOUNT OF 

THE MANUSCRIPTS. NUMBER AND STATE. CONTAIN THE 

WHOLE OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. THEIR SUBSTANTIAL 

INTEGRITY. 

The credibility of the New Testament having been suf- 
ficiently established, an explanation of the sources from 
which the original text is derived will not be inappropri- 
ate. The whole of the New Testament was written in 
the Greek language ; not the Greek of antiquity — perhaps 
the most noble vehicle of thought that the world has known 
since speech was confounded at Babel — but the Greek of 
a later age, when Greece had ceased to live — often called 
the Alexandrian. 

The original autographic manuscripts are lost. The 
transcripts which have been preserved are technically 
styled Codices, and are divided into two classes. The 
first comprises the Uncial Manuscripts — those written in 
undivided capital letters. The second includes the Cursive 
Manuscripts — those written in small letters, divided and 
accented. They are more numerous and of less value 
than the former. 

A brief description of a few of the leading Uncials will 
be given : 



32 A HAND-BOOK OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 

A. Codex Alexandrinus. In the British Museum. It was writ- 

ten at Alexandria, in the fifth century, on parchment, and is in 
folio form. Cyril, Patriarch of Alexandria, and afterward of 
Constantinople, presented it, in the year 1628, to Charles I. 

B. Codex Yaticanus. In the Vatican Library, Romet It belongs 

to the fourth century, and is the oldest copy of the Greek Testa- 
ment extant. Nothing is known of its history. It is written on 
vellum, in quarto. Vercellone published an edition of it in 
1854, and another in 1859. The latter, though not free from 
errors, is said to be a great improvement on the former. Ver- 
cellone says a facsimile will be granted if desired. 

C. Codex Ephraemi. In the Imperial Library, Paris. Lascaris 

probably obtained it in Constantinople, whither he was sent by 
Lorenzo de Medicis to collect manuscripts. Catherine de Medi- 
cis received it from Cardinal Ridolfi, into whose hands it had 
passed, and brought it with her to France. The name proceed- 
ed from the Syrian Ephraem having written some of his works 
over it. The latter were removed by chemical process, and the 
original writing restored. Manuscripts thus recovered are usu- 
ally called rescripts or palimpsests. It was written at Alexan- 
dria, and belongs to the fifth century. The oldest copy known 
of the Apocalypse, save the Sinaiticus, is included in it. 

D. Codex Beza. In the University Library, Cambridge. Beza 

obtained it from the monastery of St. Iremeus, at Lyons, and 
presented it to the University of Cambridge, in 1581. It may 
be referred to the commencement of the sixth century, but is of 
inferior value to the previous three. It is written on parchment, 
in folio, and embraces the Gospels and Acts, with a Latin ver- 
sion. 
Codex Sinaiticus. At St. Petersburg. It was found by Dr. Tisch- 
endorf, in 1859, at the monastery of St. Catherine, Mount Sinai. 
It is written in uncials, on parchment. Besides the Hebrew por- 
tion, it contains the New Testament entire. Dr. T. considers it 
older than the Codex Vaticanus. It is being superbly pub- 
lished. 

The above comprehend the Five Great Codices, and 
though there are at least thirty more preserved in the dif- 
ferent Public Libraries of Europe, these five, in the estima- 



A HAND-BOOK OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 33 

tion of critics, occupy the first rank, and are considered of 
the highest authority. The Codex Laudianus — in Greek 
and Latin — brought from Sardinia by the venerable Bede, 
and afterward presented by Archbishop Laud to the Bod- 
leian, and the Codex Claromontanus, in the Royal Library 
at Paris — a Graeco-Latin manuscript of the sixth century, 
containing all the Pauline Epistles, except sixteen verses 
comprised in two lacunae — are of great importance and 
worthy of being specially mentioned. All can not be de- 
scribed ; but, from what has been stated, a sufficient idea 
may be gained of the Uncial Manuscripts, or those em- 
braced in the first class. 

The Cursive Manuscripts, or those contained in the sec- 
ond class, are much more abundant than the Uncials. A 
list of them would be quite uninteresting. The Codex 
Mosquensis, containing the Epistles of St. Paul, may be 
attributed to the ninth century, and is probably the oldest. 
They are found from the tenth to the sixteenth centuries ; 
few of them, however, can claim an early date. It is pos- 
sible that some of them may have been transcribed from 
ancient manuscripts which have been lost ; one which Eras- 
mus had, and which he valued as being very old, has dis- 
appeared. The Cursives are not considered of high au- 
thority; indeed, critics are undecided in regard to the 
weight that should be given to them in the construction 
of an emended text. 

It must be remarked, in relation to the Codices of the 
New Testament, that all are not manuscripts of the whole 
Testament. " Transcripts," says Tregelles, " of the vari- 
ous parts were made just as there might exist demand ; 

C 



34 A HAND-BOOK OP THE NEW TESTAMENT. 

thus copies of the four Gospels are very numerous, from 
their having been used both in public and private, but es- 
pecially the former. Copies of the Epistles of St. Paul 
have also come down to us in considerable numbers ; of 
the Acts of the Apostles and Catholic Epistles there are 
fewer copies ; but even these are numerous when compared 
with those of the Revelation." It may also be added that 
lacunce of one or more verses are sometimes found in the 
manuscripts of the respective books, and, what is incident 
to all transcripts, verbal differences, which occasion vari- 
ous readings of the same passage. The Codices combined, 
however, contain the whole of the Greek Testament. Gen- 
eral confirmation is also drawn from quotations preserved 
in the writings of the early Fathers, and from ancient ver- 
sions ; but neither of these can be appealed to in support 
of words. 

. Such are the ample and ultimate sources from which 
the original text of the New Testament is derived. "It 
is indeed," says Tregelles, " a cause for thankfulness that 
God has preserved the Scripture to us in such substantial 
integrity: it has been subjected to many casualties, it has 
passed through the hands of many copyists, but in doctrine 
and precept it is unchanged." 



CHAPTER V. 

GREEK TESTAMENT. ERA SMUS. COMPLUTENSIAN. STE- 
PHENS. ELZEVIR. RECEIVED TEXT. NEARLY IDENTIC- 
AL WITH ERASMUS. MILL. BENGEL. WETSTELN. 

GRIESBACH. SCHOLZ. DAVIDSON. TREGELLES. 

LACHMANN. TISCHENDORF. ALFORD. 

The first printed edition of the Greek Testament was 
published by Erasmus, at Basle, in the year 1516. 

The second printed edition was published in 1520, at 
Alcala (Complutum), by the celebrated Cardinal Ximenes, 
under the editorship of four scholars, to whom the respons- 
ible duty was intrusted. No conference took place be- 
tween the editors of the two editions. Both received the 
express sanction and approbation of Leo X. "It is not 
a little remarkable, and it shows, I think," says Tregelles, 
" the overruling providence of God, that at so short a time 
before the commencement of the Eeformation these two 
editions of the original text of the New Testament should 
have been published ; both of them sanctioned and ap- 
proved by Rome, though really among the most import- 
ant instruments for the establishment of evangelical doc- 
trine.'' 

Erasmus published, in all, five editions. The fourth he 
corrected by aid of the Complutensian of Ximenes, and 
the fifth was almost a reprint of the fourth. The Eras- 



36 A HAND-BOOK OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 

mian and Complutensian editions formed, therefore, the 
starting-point for all Greek Testaments. 

Robert Stephens subsequently printed several editions 
of the Greek Testament. In his third he adhered almost 
entirely to Erasmus's fifth. It was brought out in the 
year 1550. 

Theodore Beza, the colleague of Calvin at Geneva, also 
put forth five editions of the New Testament. 

In 1624 was published by the celebrated Elzevir press 
at Leyden an edition of the Greek Testament, founded 
upon a collation of the Beza editions, with the third of Ste- 
phens's, above referred to. A second edition of the Elze- 
vir appeared in 1633, and was styled by the editor Textus 
ab omnibus Receptus ; since which time the appellation of 
Textus Receptus, or Received Text, has been applied to the 
Elzevirs. The value which connoisseurs attach to Elzevir 
copies of Greek and Latin authors is too well known to 
need comment. 

It will be observed that Stephens's third followed Eras- 
mus's fifth — a reprint of the fourth, which had been cor- 
rected by the Complutensian — and that the Elzevirs re- 
sulted from a collation of the Beza editions with Ste- 
phens's third. Hence the Received Text is almost the 
same as Erasmus's fourth and fifth — the two latter being 
nearly identical. u The critical authority of the Received 
Text," says Alford, "is very feeble." 

The next attempts to produce a corrected text of the 
Greek Testament were made by John Mill, of the Church 
of England, in the last half of the seventeenth, and by 
Bengel and Wetstein, of Germany, in the first half of the 



A HAND-BOOK OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 37 

eighteenth century. Much time, ability, and labor were 
devoted by them to the subject. 

In 1806, Griesbach, also a German, published a com- 
plete edition of the Greek Testament, in which the first 
really great effort was made to revise the text on critical 
principles. The fifteen rules of Griesbacli may be regard- 
ed as forming the canon of textual criticism. 

Dr. Scholz, a Eomanist of Bonn, likewise collated many 
manuscripts discovered by himself, and rendered valuable 
service in that direction ; but his edition of the Greek 
Testament is of small benefit to the student. 

During the present century the desire to obtain a pure 
text of the Greek Testament has stimulated the efforts of 
the ablest and most learned Greek scholars in England 
and on the Continent. The contributions of Dr. Samuel 
Davidson to the cause of Biblical Criticism can not be too 
highly appreciated. Tregelles, whose belief in verbal in- 
spiration renders him peculiarly anxious that the text 
should be freed from the slightest corruption, has edited 
the Revelation — perhaps the most difficult Book in the 
Canon to edit — in a very elegant manner, and labored ex- 
tensively on the general question of a revised text. 

Lachmann's edition of the Greek Testament, published 
at Berlin in 1842, makes great pretensions, which, in the 
opinion of Tregelles and Alford, are not sustained. The 
former says that he made a mistake in the " choice of his 
critical materials;" the latter, that his edition "possesses 
hardly any critical value." Lachmann's services, however, 
in the matter of punctuation are important. 

Muralt, of Petersburg, put forth an edition in 1846, 



88 HAND-BOOK OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 

for which he claimed particular merit, on the ground of 
having been permitted access to the Codex Vaticanus, of 
which little was known at that time. He was allowed by 
the Librarian of the Vatican to see it, but not to consult it. 
Since then the Codex has been twice collated and given to 
the .public. 

Tischendorf, the collator and editor of the Codex Ephra- 
em, published in the year 1850, at Leipsic, an edition of 
the Greek Testament, in which he professed to follow the 
?nost ancient manuscripts, without, however, entirely neglect- 
ing the later ones. His services have been of the greatest 
importance, both as a collator and editor; and the text 
of his Berlin copy is generally regarded as a great advance 
upon any thing which had then appeared. He is now fur- 
ther distinguished as the editor of the Codex Sinaiticus. 

Of late years Tregelles has been engaged in editing a 
critical text of the Greek Testament. Portions of it have 
already been given to the public. 

Bloomfield's edition of the Greek Testament is familiar 
to many. It was the best work of its day, and has much 
to recommend it now. The American reprint is said to 
be inferior to the English copy. 

Wordsworth completed his edition of the Greek Testa- 
ment in the year 1861. It is one of the finest extant, 
elaborate in every respect, and is a work of a very high 
order of merit. 

Bishop Ellicott has put forth editions of the Pastoral 
and of some of the Pauline Epistles — all of a high charac- 
ter, and exhibiting the author's fitness for such an import- 
ant duty. 



A HAND-BOOK OP THE NEW TESTAMENT. 39 

Finally, Dean Alford has published a most elaborate 
Greek Testament. Besides a commentary, it contains a 
digest of various readings, which render it a work of the 
greatest value to the textual student. 

What influence the publication of the Codex Vaticanus 
and the Codex Sinaiticus will have upon future recensions 
of the text of the Greek Testament we are unable to say. 
From what we have learned, however, we infer that Al- 
ford' s text will be little, if any, varied by either. 

The three Greek Testaments of the day which take first 
rank are those of Wordsworth, Ellicott (as far as it goes), 
and Alford. "They are," says the London Quarterly, in 
a fine article on the subject, " the work of three minds of 
different classes, viewing questions independently, and from 
different points of view, coming at times in collision with 
each other, but for that very reason more convincing and 
authoritative when they coincide. And they will enable 
the moderate Greek scholar to read his Greek Testament 
not only with the profit always to be derived from the 
study of Scripture, but with safety and satisfaction in re- 
gard to the numerous questions now opened by Biblical 
criticism. In Dr. Wordsworth the- Patristic spirit of in- 
terpretation predominates ; in Bishop Ellicott, the sound 
old English theology of the seventeenth century ; in Dean 
Alford, the German element. But none of them excludes 
the other. All of them have entered into that haunted 
chamber of German theology, which only requires to be 
unlocked and thrown open to the light to lose its fascina- 
tions and its terrors. All of them face that formidable 
phantom of textual criticism, with its 120,000 various 



40 A HAND-BOOK OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 

readings in the New Testament alone, and will enable us 
to march up to it and discover that it is empty air ; that 
still we may say with the boldest and acutest of English 
critics — Bentley — ' choose' (out of the whole MSS.) 'as 
awkwardly as you will — choose the worst by-design out 
of the whole lump of readings, and not one article of faith 
or moral precept is either perverted or lost in them.' " 

We need hardly say that the scholar armed should pos- 
sess the three Testaments thus described. 



CHAPTER VI. 

VERSIONS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. — PESCHITO. — EGYP- 
TIAN OR COPTIC. GOTHIC. — ULFILAS. VULGATE AND 

ITALIC. LUTHER'S. ITS INFLUENCE UPON THE GERMAN 

LANGUAGE. 

All translations of the Scriptures, or renderings of them 
from the original text to another language, are termed 
versions. The command being to " preach the Gospel to 
all nations," and a most important part of that duty being 
to furnish them with the word of life in such form that it 
could be read by all, numerous versions have been made. 
Indeed there are few tongues into which the Scriptures 
have not been translated. An account of some of them 
will not be found uninteresting. 

The oldest and most distinguished version of the New 
Testament is that known as the Peschito or pure version. 
It is in Syriac, and was probably executed in the second 
century. A high value attaches to it, not only on account 
of its antiquity, but from its being in the language which 
was spoken in Palestine during the period our Lord was 
upon the earth, and probably the one in which He usually 
conversed. The Revelation is not included in it, which is 
considered an additional evidence of its age. Doctor Mur- 
dock published an English translation of the Peschito a 
few years since.* 

* A manuscript of a Syriac version of the Gospels was discovered 
a few years since in one of the Nitrian monasteries (Egypt). It is 



42 A HAND-BOOK OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 

The next version is the Egyptian or Coptic, . It is re- 
ferred to the third century. The Copts are the lineal de- 
scendants of the old Egyptians, and their language, which 
is the representative of the ancient dialect, and was prob- 
ably the vulgar tongue in the days of the Pharaohs, be- 
came, according to Muller, "dead after the seventeenth 
century." It is preserved in this version. The letters are 
Greek, with a few Shemitic additions. 

The Gothic is another version entitled to be remembered 
with honor, on account of its author, the good Bishop TJ1- 
filas. It is in Moeso-Gothic, the oldest of all the written 
Germanic idioms. "The Gothic letters, of vital import- 
ance to the first Christians of our race," says De Vere, 
" owe their origin to the noble efforts of Bishop Ulfilas, 
who in the year 376 obtained permission from the Emperor 
Valens for the hard-pressed Visigoths to cross the Danube 
and to occupy Moesia. These Moesogoths became his i be- 
loved children on earth ;\ to them he preached the i Gos- 
pel of his Lord' during a long life of suffering and resigna- 
tion, and for their benefit he crowned his labors of love by 
inventing or forming a series of letters, adapted to as yet 
their unwritten language. A version of the Word of God, 
it is well known, was the glorious fruit of his rare ingenu- 
ity and unsurpassed energy; the first translation into a 
Germanic tongue, and a touching relic of the early dark 

referred to the fifth century, but is believed to have been rendered 
from earlier Greek manuscripts than the Peschito. The MSS. from 
which both were made are not now in existence. The Nitrian ver- 
sion differs from the Peschito, and confirms the authority of the old- 
est Greek MSS. It was collated and published by Dr. Cureton, the 
discoverer of the Syriac MSS., in 1858. (Edinb. Rev., July, 1859.) 



A HAND-BOOK OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 43 

• ages. The famous Codex Argenteus, the pride of the Uni- 
versity Library, in Upsala, Sweden, exhibits these venera- 
ble letters in their original form." 

The Vulgate also deserves particular notice. It is writ- 
ten in Latin. During the second century certain Latin 
versions, called Italic, were made, it is supposed, in Africa, 
but by whom is unknown. About the year 383 St. Jerome 
executed a translation of the New Testament, which was 
in all probability a revision of the African Italics, then in 
common use. The Romanist Council of Trent, in the six- 
teenth century, declared this version of St. Jerome authen- 
tic, and Sixtus V., in 1590, caused an authorized edition 
to be issued. In 1592, however, Clement VIII. issued an- 
other authorized edition, which, up to the present time, has 
been recognized as the standard, and is universally employ- 
ed in the services of the Papal Church. But both these 
authorized editions differ, not only from each other, but 
from the genuine version of St. Jerome, which had been 
adopted at Trent. Since then other versions of the Scrip- 
tures, in different languages, have been made under the au- 
thority of the Vatican. What faith can be placed in the 
accuracy and sincerity of Romanist translators may be 
gathered from the following extracts from two of their edi- 
tions of the Old Testament. In the Douay Bible, Gen- 
esis iii. 15 is rendered: " She shall crush his head, and 
thou shalt lay in wait for her heel. r ' And in an edi- 
tion formerly put forth at Dublin, and intended exclusive- 
ly for that region, the same passage is rendered : " The 
Virgin Mary shall crush the serpent's head, and thou shalt 
crush her heel." Mr. Roy remarks " that they have since 



44 A HAND-BOOK OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 

altered this too glaring error, and it now reads as be- 
fore." ' 

In justice, however, it must be admitted that the Vul- 
gate proper is a valuable version, and is thought by some 
to be a very serviceable aid in textual criticism. 

Luther's Version must not be omitted. During the pe- 
riod in which Luther was forcibly secluded in the castle 
of Wartburg, by the direction of the Elector of Saxony, 
and was thus shielded from the rescript of Charles, the 
untiring monk, temporarily metamorphosed into a knight, 
rendered the New Testament from the original into Ger- 
man. This translation was published in 1522, and not 
only did much for the cause of religion and the Reformation, 
but acquired great literary celebrity from its settling the 
German idiom, and thus becoming the stand-point of that 
language. It may be necessary to explain that the Teu- 
tonic language is divided into three dialects ; viz., the Goth- 
ic, into which Ulfilas translated the Scriptures in the fourth 
century, and which is now represented by the Low Ger- 
man ; the High German ; and the Scandinavian. The 
High German exhibits, in its history, three phases ; viz., 
the Old, the Middle, and the New. The Middle was in 
vogue up to Luther's time ; but " the Reformation and the 
Bible-translation of the great Reformer," says De Vere, 
"gave the New High German, the dialect of a single prov- 
ince inhabited by Slaves, the supremacy over all rival dia- 
lects ; and Slavic writers point with pride to the fact that 
modern High German owes its supremacy, as they believe, 
to the admirable pliancy of Slavic organs of speech applied 
to the pronunciation of a Germanic idiom." The German 



A HAND-BOOK OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 15 

tongue, then — that language which, as Klopstock justly 
affirms, is so " rich in manifold adaptations to ever-new and 
yet German forms of thought," and is graced by so noble 
a literature — owes its position to Luther's version of the 
Bible. 

Although versions of the New Testament have been 
made since the second century, as occasion required, and 
all are of interest, not any are of so much importance, or 
demand such particular attention, as the English. A 
chapter, therefore, will be devoted to their consideration, 
and especially to a succinct account of that one so familiar 
to all — the authorized version of the Church of England. 



CHAPTER VII. 

SAXON. ANGLO-SAXON. ST. CUTHBERT's GOSPEL. RUSH- 

WORTH'S GLOSS. BEDE's ANGLO-SAXON VERSION. — EN- 
GLISH. — wickliffe's version. — tyndale's. — math- 
ews's. CRANMER'S. GENEVA. ACCOUNT OF THE SUB- 
division of the bible into chapters and verses. 

bishop's version. — Parker's. — Thompson's. — rheims. 
king james version — how made.-- authorized. 

ELIOT'S INDIAN VERSION. 

The Saxon, a descendant of the Low German — the first 
of the three Teutonic dialects — was domiciliated in the 
British Isles, after the formation of the Heptarchy, in the 
fifth century, and there gave birth to the Anglo-Saxon 
tongue. The latter, expelled by the proud Norman from 
palace, and lower, and hall, disappeared, as a national lan- 
guage, in the eleventh century. It was not, however, ban- 
ished from the cottage ; it was preserved at the hearths and 
lived in the homes and hearts of the people, to give them 
" the inestimable privilege of reading the Word of God in 
their own tongue." 

The first versions of any part of the New Testament 
that were made in Britain were in the Anglo-Saxon. 
"The famous Durham Book, or St. Cuthbert's Gospel, in 
the Cottonian Library of the British Museum," says De 
Vere, " and Rushworth's Gloss, in the Bodleian at Oxford, 
are noble and interesting witnesses of the zeal of the early 



A HAND-BOOK OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 47 

Anglo-Saxon Church, which thus possessed, at least, the 
four Evangelists in the vernacular, at a time when the 
cognate German was but little esteemed, and the Bible of 
Ulfilas the only other instance of a vernacular version of 
the Word of God." 

The next version of which a record has been preserved 
was that of the Venerable Bede, who has already been al- 
luded to, as having brought the Codex Laudianus from 
Sardinia. About the commencement of the eighth centu- 
ry Bede executed an Anglo-Saxon version of the New 
Testament. The following is the Lord's Prayer : 

Uren Fader thic arth in Heofnas, sic gehalgud thin noma, to 
cymeth thin ric, sic thin willa sue is in Heofnas and in eortho. 
Uren hlaf ofer wirthe sel us to daeg, and forgef us scylda urna sue 
we forgefan scyldgam urum, and no inlead urith in custnung, al 
gefrig urich from ifle. Amen. 

The Anglo-Saxon and the Norman-French united to 
produce the Engleis, in which, however, the former pre- 
dominated ; for it is universally acknowledged that to the 
Anglo-Saxon is the English language indebted, not only 
for its strength and vigor, but for its form and structure. 

The English versions proper of the New Testament will 
be described in order as they are recorded in history. The 
dates are approximated. 

a.d. 1360. Wickliffe's Version. WicklifFe, Professor of 
Theology in Baliol College, Oxford, was the earliest En- 
glish Reformer, and was protected by old John of Gaunt, 
the friend of Chaucer and Gower. He rendered his version 
from the Vulgate, not being acquainted with Greek. It 
was of immense importance in establishing the language, 



48 A HAND-BOOK OP THE NEW TESTAMENT. 

and was regarded with " national partiality and pious rev- 
erence." The following is the translation of the Magnifi- 
cat, and exhibits the language in its early stage : 

And Marye seyde, My soul magnifieth the Lord. 

And my spiryt hath gladid in God myn helthe. 

For he hath behulden the mekenesse of his hand-mayden : for lo 
for this alle generatiouns schulen seye that I am blessid. 

For he that is mighti hath don to me grete things, and his name 
is holy. 

And his mercy is fro kyndrede into kyndrede to men that dreden 
him. 

He hath made myght in his arm, he scatteride proude men with 
the thoughte of his herte. 

He sette doun myghty men fro seete, and enhaunside meke men. 
He hath fulfillid hungry men with goodis, and he has left riche men 
voide. 

He heuynge mynde of his mercy took up Israel his child, 

As he hath spoken to our fadris, to Abraham, and into his seed 
into worlds. Luke, i. 46. 

, a.d. 1526. TyndaWs Version. It was the first English 
version of the New Testament that was printed. The 
translation was made in Hamburg, whither Tyndale had 
fled from London. Great efforts were made by the Papists 
to suppress it, and many copies were destroyed ; notwith- 
standing, it was widely circulated and much read. The 
publication was commenced at Cologne and completed at 
Wittemberg. Dr. Geddes remarks that " in point of per- 
spicuity and noble simplicity, propriety of idiom and purity 
of style, no English version has yet surpassed it.*' The 
following specimen indicates the advance made in the lan- 
guage since the days of Wickliffe : 

And Mary sayde, My soul magnifieth the Lorde, and my sprete 
rejoyseth in God my Savioure. 



A HAND-BOOK OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 49 

For he hath loked on the poore degre off his honde mayden. 
Beholde no we from hens for the shall all generacions call me blessed. 

For he that is myghty hath done to me greate thinges, and blessed 
ys his name : 

And hys mercy is always on them that feare him thorow oute all 
generacions. 

He hath shewed strengthe with his arme ; he hath scattered them 
that are proude in the ymaginacion of their hertes. 

He hath putt doune the myghty from their seates, and hath exalt- 
ed them of lowe degre. 

He hath filled the hongry with goode thinges, and hath sent away 
the ryche empty. 

He hath remembered mercy, and hath holpen his servaunt Israhel. 

Even as he promised to oure fathers, Abraham and to his seed for 
ever. — Luke, i. 46. 

a.d. 1537. Mathews's Version. This was a republica- 
tion of the former, made at Hamburg after the martyrdom 
of Tyndale at Vilvoord. John Rogers, the celebrated mar- 
tyr, and Miles Coverdale revised Tyndale's Bible, and pub- 
lished it with a dedication to Henry VIII. Notes from 
Luther's Bible were appended, and the whole issued under 
the borrowed name of jVIathews. Hence its appellation. 
It was recommended to the King by the Primate Cranmer, 
and received the license of His Majesty. 

a.d. 1562. Cranmer 's Version. It was the first version 
printed by authority in England, and was placed in the 
churches to be read by the people, and was used in the 
public services of religion. The name was given to it 
from the preface, which Cranmer added to a revision of 
the Tyndale version by Coverdale. 

a.d. 1560. Geneva Version. This was made by some 
English exiles, 'and printed at Geneva. It was much es- 
teemed by the Puritans on account of the annotations 

D 



50 A HAND-BOOK OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 

which accompanied the text. The chapters were divided 
into verses for the first time in this translation, though no 
breaks were made. Versification, according to Dr. Hook, 
originated thus : 

"Hugo de Sancto Claro, who flourished about the year 1240, pro- 
jected the first concordance, which is that of the Latin Vulgate 
Bible. As the intention of this work was to render the finding of 
any word or passage in the Scriptures more easy, it became necessary 
to divide the book into sections, and the sections into subdivisions. 
These sections are the chapters into which the Bible has been divided 
since that time. But the subdivision of the chapters was not then 
into verses as at present. Hugo subdivided them by the letters a, b, 
c, r>, e, f, g, which were placed in the margin at an equal distance 
from each other, according to the length of the chapters. About 
the year 1445 Mordecai Nathan, a famous Jewish Eabbi, improved 
Hugo's invention, and subdivided the chapters into verses, in the 
manner they are at present." 

a.d. 1568. The Bishop's Version. It derived its name 
from Archbishop Parker, who employed learned men to 
make a new translation from the original. Having been 
published in folio it was also called the Great English 
Bible. An octavo edition was also printed in fine black 
letter, and the text divided into chapters and verses after 
the manner of the Geneva version. 

a.d. 1572. Parker's Version. The same as the former, 
with some corrections added by the Archbishop. It was 
long used in the churches, though the Geneva obtained 
most in private families. Above twenty editions were 
published of it in as many years. 

a.d. 1582. Thompson Version. A private translation, 
made from Beza's Latin version, with Beza's notes ap- 
pended. It differs but little from the Geneva. 

a.d. 1584. Rheims Version. The Eomanists, finding it 



A HAND-BOOK OF THE NEW TESTA^IENT. 51 

impossible to prevent the people from reading the Protest- 
ant versions, caused a translation to be made at Eheims 
■which should accord with their tenets. Many Hebrew and 
Greek words were left unrendered, and in most cases Sax- 
on words w r ere avoided w r hen those of Latin derivation 
could be found to express the idea. A number of the 
copies were confiscated by order of the Queen, and Dr. 
Fuike w r as appointed to confute it. Able refutations of 
the Rheimists, by Drs. Fulke and Cartwright, subsequently 
appeared. The version is of an inferior character. 

a.d. 1613. King James Version. At the Hampton 
Court Conference, which was called to settle the difficul- 
ties between the Church and the Puritans, Dr. Keynolds 
moved His Majesty that there might be a new translation 
of the Bible. To this the King very willingly acceded, as 
he disliked the Geneva version on account of its annota- 
tions, and the Bishop's (Parkers) Bible was not free from 
faults. Indeed, in the opinion of His Majesty, there was 
no good translation of the Bible. Learned men were 
shortly appointed by the King, who had become deeply 
interested in w T hat proved the great glory of his reign, and 
w r ere furnished with a code of fourteen rules, by which 
they were to be governed in the execution of their office. 
They were directed to adhere to the Bishop's (Parker's) 
Bible as far as the original Hebrew and Greek w T ould per- 
mit, but where other versions were found to agree better 
wdth the original texts to amend the Bishop's version by 
them. Passages of special obscurity were to be submitted 
to the most distinguished scholars of the land, and the best 
counsel obtained. The work was to be first individually 



52 A HAND-BOOK OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 

and separately done, and afterward compared and settled 
in conference. The translators did not enter upon their 
duties until the year 1607. The New Testament was 
divided between two companies. The first, consisting of 
eight, met at Oxford, and was charged with the translation 
of the Gospels, the Acts of the Apostles, and the Apoca- 
lypse. The Epistles were allotted to the second company, 
composed of seven, which met at Westminster. Previous- 
ly to assembling in bank each member translated, in ac- 
cordance with the rules of the King, -the whole of the 
portion committed to the company to which he belonged. 
The company then conferred, and from a collation of all 
the translations of the several members produced one ap- 
proved copy. The two companies then met together and 
consolidated their respective copies into one. This in turn 
was revised by another Commission appointed by the King. 
After that the revised copy of the Commissioners was again 
revised by Bilson, Bishop of Winchester, and Miles Smith, 
afterward Bishop of Gloucester. Finally, the revision of 
the two latter was submitted to Bancroft, Bishop of Lon- 
don, who retouched the whole, adding what might be nec- 
essary to render the work complete. The version of the 
New Testament, thus carefully made, was published, with 
a dedicatory epistle to the King, in 1613 ; and having re- 
ceived the sanction of the Crown and the Church, was 
henceforth recognized by all Protestants as the Authorized 
Version. Of its merits it is hardly necessary to speak. 
With not less taste than discretion the translators closely 
followed Tyndale, and this noble version well deserves the ■ 
tribute paid to Dan Chaucer by the author of the " Faerie 



A HAND-BOOK OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 53 

Queene :" "A well of English undefiled." Long may it 
continue to be the household words of the Anglo-Saxon 
race, and the pride and glory of the English language ! 

Before closing this account of the versions of the New 
Testament, an allusion to the first American version of 
the Scripture may gratify the reader. John Eliot, the 
apostle of the red men, in the latter part of the seventeenth 
century, having by untiring zeal and devotion converted 
to Christianity over three thousand of the Indians of New 
England, crowned his exertion's by making a translation 
of the Bible in the language of the Massachusetts, one of 
the tribes of the great Algonquin race. The following is 
a specimen, containing the first part of the Lord's Prayer 
as Eliot rendered it for his red children : 

Nooshun kesukqut quttianatamunacli koowesuonk. Peyau- 
niooutch kukketassootamoonk, kuttenantarndonk nen nach ohkeit 
heane kesukqut. 

But the white men have destroyed the Indian before 
their face, the Massachusetts have perished from off the 
earth, and the sound of the forest tongue, in which Eliot 
proclaimed the Gospel of Christ's redeeming love and the 
'•'praying Indian" appealed to his Father in heaven, is 
heard no more at all. 



CHAPTER VIII. 

THE GOSPELS. 

The Gospels are four separate narratives of the life of 
our Lord and Saviour Jesus Christ. They are called in 
the Greek euangeliai, or glad-tidings ; in the Saxon, God- 
spells, or God's-words. The first three, from the common 
order pursued by the respective authors, are termed the 
Synoptic Gospels, and were written prior to the destruc- 
tion of Jerusalem, which occurred a.b. 70. The fourth 
was probably not written until a few years after that 
event. No precise date can be affixed to each one ; nor is 
it, important. It is enough to know that they were cur- 
rent during the lifetime of many eye-witnesses of the facts 
related. 

Before entering upon an examination of the narration 
contained in the Gospels, it is important to consider: from 
what sources they were derived ; the distinctness of the 
four accounts, and their independence of each other. 

Some have thought that there was a proto-evangel, or 
Original Gospel, from which all the others were compiled. 
History, however, is silent upon the subject of the exist- 
ence of any such proto-evangel, and nothing in the Gos- 
pels themselves sustains the idea. Had there been such 
an original Gospel, the basis of the subsequent Gospels, it 
would have been embodied in each one; and in that re- 



A HAND-BOOK OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. GO 

spect the latter would be alike, although there might be a 
difference in their dimensions arising from an expansion 
of the narrative, or the addition of new matter otherwise 
derived. The theory, therefore, of a proto-evangel is un- 
tenable. 

It has been inferred by others that the Gospel first writ- 
ten must have been familiar to the authors of the remain- 
ing three, and that they availed themselves of the assist- 
ance which it afforded in the composition of their several 
narratives. Supposing Matthew's Gospel to have been 
the earliest written, it is by no means apparent that the 
other evangelists could have seen it. If Matthew's Gos- 
pel was in the hands of the subsequent writers, why did 
they omit any thing which he had recorded ? The same 
objections generally exist to tracing the three latter Gos- 
pels up to the first as have been stated in regard to the 
supposed proto-evangel. 

It has been suggested that the events of our Saviour's 
life, the circumstances and facts bearing upon or connect- 
ed with it, and His discourses and conversations, had been 
repeatedly rehearsed by the eye-witnesses and hearers of 
our Lord, and had thus become not only very familiar to 
the first Christians, but perhaps had been in part written 
down, as inclination prompted. This would account both 
for the verbal coincidences and the variety exhibited in the 
four narratives. Each writer, according to his particular 
characteristics, would be more affected by some features 
of his* Master's life than others, more interested in some 
of His sayings or teachings, or attach more importance to 
them than to others ; and as each evidently wrote upon a 



56 A HAND-BOOK OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 

plan, and with an object peculiar to himself, so each would 
more fully elaborate those portions with which he was 1 ' 
most deeply impressed, or which bore especially upon the 
particular object he had in view. It seems quite clear that 
they all had different purposes, and were desirous of pre- , 
senting the one subject under somewhat different aspects, 
in different modes, as if for different classes of readers. 
Besides, it must not be forgotten that though they were 
inspired, yet they were still men, and acted under the nat- 
ural impulses of diverse character and education. The 
Gospels not only differ from each other, but the synoptic 
Gospels differ from the fourth. Matthew contains a gen- 
ealogy of Christ extending to Abraham, and an account 
of the wise men. Mark has neither. Luke contains a 
genealogy extending up to Adam, and does not refer to 
the Magi, but contains an allusion to the early life of 
Christ. The synoptic Gospels omit entirely our Saviour's 
ministry in Judea, while the fourth Gospel records it in 
full. The synoptic are simpler in their teachings, narrate 
more than the fourth, and are more engaged upon extern- 
al matters. John is full of the sublime discourses of our 
Saviour, and records the deep things of God, and what 
relates to the mystery and inner life of Christ. John has 
sometimes been termed the supplementary Gospel ; but as 
there is no evidence, either internal or external, that John 
had seen the first three, there is no good reason for so con- 
sidering it. That it contains some things which they do 
not, or completes the circle of the Gospels, is no reason. 
On the contrary, it is an evidence of its independence. In- 
deed, the four Gospels are so diverse in their style, so va- 



A HAND-BOOK OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 57 

rious in their treatment of the subject, so dissimilar in 
many respects, and yet so harmonious in the one grand 
design, that they must be regarded as entirely individual 
productions. With respect to the whole matter, after a 
careful investigation, Alford concludes : 

"That the synoptic Gospels contain the substance of 
the Apostles' testimony, collected principally from their 
oral teaching current in the Church — partly, also, from 
written documents embodying portions of that teaching : 
that there is, however, no reason from their internal struc- 
ture to believe, but every reason to disbelieve, that any 
one of the three Evangelists had access to either of the 
other two Gospels in its present form." In reference to 
John's Gospel, he adds : " I have no hesitation, therefore, 
in receiving as the true account of the source of this Gos- 
pel that generally given and believed — viz., that we have 
it from the autoptic authority of the Apostle himself." 

It has been said that the Gospels contain the life of 
Christ. This fact has induced some to endeavor to form 
out of them what is technically termed a harmony, or a 
collation of every passage in each Gospel, according to the 
plan adopted by the compiler of the harmony. To har- 
monize the Gospels in many points is comparatively easy, 
but to bring them into a state of perfect unity, so that 
they shall accord in every minute detail, is probably im- 
possible. Expedients must be resorted to in order to ef- 
fect such an accord, and passages must sometimes be forced 
into accommodation. An illustration may be drawn from 
the miracle of healing performed upon the blind man, al- 
ready alluded to in the chapter on Inspiration. No fair 



58 A HAND-BOOK OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 

process can harmonize the different accounts, though the 
miracle is the same. Other instances of course occur 
where the difficulty is equally apparent. 

But the life narrated by the four Gospels is one ; and a 
general agreement exists by which a harmony can be con- 
structed that, without attempting^ tQ assimilate every mi- 
nute detail, will enable the reader, to grasp the life of 
Christ in one view. This has been admirably done by 
Dr. Jar vis in the following manner : 

Sect. A. — "The commencement of St. John's Gospel proclaims 
the eternity of God the Word, his incarnation, and mediation be- 
tween God and man." 

Sect. 1. — "The prefatory parts of the Gospels of St. John and St. 
Luke, comprehending all that is related of St. John the Baptist pre- 
vious to his ministry." 

Sect. 2. — "Our Lord's incarnation, birth,* infancy, and child- 
hood ; containing all that is recorded till the time of his baptism." 

Sect. 3. — "From the commencement of St. John the Baptist's 
ministry to our Lord's baptism, with which act His ministry began 
as & prophet sent to the lost sheep of the house of Israel." 

Sect. 4. — "Our Lord's ministry, principally in Judea, until the 
imprisonment of John the Baptist." 

Sect. 5. — " Our Lord's ministry in Galilee, the dominions of Her- 
od Antipas, from his taking up his abode in Capernaum to the death 
of St. John the Baptist." 

Sect. 6. — "Our Lord's ministry in the country beyond Jordan, or 
the dominions of Herod Philip, from the death of John the Baptist 
until the death and resurrection of Lazarus ; after which he retired 

* The exact date of the birth of Christ has been disputed ; but 
Dr. Jarvis, after a most profound and exhaustive chronological in- 
vestigation, demonstrates that "He was born on the twenty-fifth day 
of December a.j.p. 4707," or six years before the vulgar era; the 
year which was signalized by three conjunctions of Jupiter and Sat- 
urn ; and "the very same year in which Augustus shut the temple 
of Janus the third time, in token of universal peace." 



A HAND-BOOK OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 59 

to Ephraim, in Samaria, where He remained till He went to be 
crucified." 

Sect. 7. — "Our Lord's Passion ; or his acts as Priest, and his suf- 
ferings as Victim, for the sins of the world." 

Sect. 8. — "Our Lord's Resurrection, declaring Him to be King 
as well as Priest, and his ascension into heaven in his regal and 
sacerdotal character." 

These divisions comprehend all that need be said on the 
subject. From an attentive examination of them one idea 
can be obtained of the general purport and action of the 
Gospels, and that unpleasant confusion avoided which is 
incident to reading four separate accounts of the same 
transaction. By keeping this arrangement in view, and 
thus following the footsteps of our Saviour, and listening 
to His voice and seeing His works, the Gospels as a whole, 
or any part of them, may be read or studied with increased 
advantage and pleasure. And, to profit withal to the ut- 
most, let it be remembered that " the euaungeliste rehers- 
eth what Christ said and did simplye and truely, whiche 
story we must so place in vnderstandyng, as we tryfle not 
the mysterie, at stayng and stoppyng of lettres and sylla- 
bles." 

" There stands the messenger of Truth : there stands 
The legate of the skies ! His theme divine, 
His office sacred, his credentials clear. 
By him the violated law speaks out 
Its thunders ; and by him, in strains as sweet 
As angels use, the Gospel whispers peace." 



NOTE UPON MODE OF CALCULATING TIME. 

The ancient Hebrews divided the day into four parts — viz., morn- 
ing, noon, first evening, last evening 3 p.m. : the night into three 
parts — viz., night, midnight, morning watch. The second evening 



60 A HAND-BOOK OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 

ended and the night began at sunset. The whole day of twenty- 
four hours was reckoned from sunset. 

The Greeks and Romans divided the day into twelve hours, the 
length of which varied according to the position of the sun and the 
length of the day itself; the first hour began at sunrise, and coin- 
cided with our 6 a.m. at the equinox. The night they arranged in 
four watches of three hours each ; the first began at sunset, or 6 p.m. 
at the equinox. The Roman custom prevailed in Palestine during 
the time of our Saviour, and is the one referred to by the writers of 
the New Testament. 



CHAPTER IX. 

st. Matthew's gospel. 

The Gospel according to St. Matthew, though no pre- 
cise date can be affixed to it, was conceded by the early 
Church to have been the first written. The author of it 
was Matthew the Publican, one of the Twelve Apostles. 
He is called by Mark (ii. 14) Levi, the son of Alpheus, or 
Cleopas; and as the latter is believed to have been the 
husband of Mary, the sister of the Virgin, Matthew, or 
Levi, was the cousin of our Lord. Of his life little is 
known. The scene of his early apostolic labors must have 
been among the first Christians in Palestine. Tradition 
refers to Ethiopia and Macedonia as countries which had 
been visited by him, but it is probable that the most of 
his life was spent in Palestine, and that there his Gospel 
was written. 

It is eminently Hebraistic in style and tone, much more 
so than the other Gospels. From its having been the first 
written, an inference has been drawn that it was written 
in Hebrew or Syriac, and an effort has been made to sub- 
stantiate the idea by aid of early writers ; but the effort 
has not proved successful, and a Greek original may be 
safely acceded to. 

Matthew wrote for the first Christians, or the early con- 
verts from Judaism. His Gospel presumes an acquaint- 



62 A HAND-BOOK OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 

ance with Jewish ideas and customs, and with the Jewish 
conception of the Messiah. Very few explanations are 
therefore made, and references to the Prophets are fre- 
quent. But it was not intended exclusively for Jewish 
Christians. There are interpretations of Hebrew words 
in it, and its general scope and design are ample enough 
to include all believers in Christ of every nation what- 
soever. 

" The internal character of this Gospel answers," says 
Alford, " to what we know of the history and time of its 
compilation. Its marks of chronological sequence are very 
vague, and many of them are hardly, perhaps, to be insist- 
ed on at all. When compared with the more definite no- 
tices of Mark and Luke, its order of events is sometimes 
superseded by theirs. It was to be expected, in the earli- 
est written accounts of matters so important, that the ob- 
ject should rather be to record the things done, and the say- 
ings of our Lord, than the precise order in which they took 
place. It is in this principal duty of an Evangelist that 
Matthew stands pre-eminent, and especially in the report 
of the longer discourses of our Lord. This seems to have 
been the peculiar gift of the Spirit to him." 

It has been already said that differences between the 
Gospels exist, which are often perplexing to the reader. 
One of these is the discrepancy between the two genealo- 
gies of our Saviour, recorded by Matthew and Luke. To 
remove the difficulty as far as possible, a brief elucidation, 
derived from Eusebius, will be given. Matthew deduces 
his from Abraham, that being a point of great importance 
in the eye of a Jew, and one evidence that the writer was 



A HAND-BOOK OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 63 

desirous of enlisting the sympathies of the chosen people 
in the cause of the Son of David, the King of Israel. Luke 
traces his to Adam, as if it were intended for all nations e 
Matthew makes Jacob the father of Joseph, and Luke says 
Joseph was the son of Eli. Matthew's genealogy is not 
full ; omissions were made in order to exhibit it in tesse- 
radecads. Supposing Eli and Jacob to have been uterine 
brothers, and that Jacob formed a levirate marriage with 
Eli's widow, then Joseph would have been legally the son 
of Eli, and Jacob would have begot him. To reconcile 
them entirely, however, may be impossible, and perhaps 
ought not to be attempted. The object of the writers was 
simply to exhibit external evidence of the " Davidical de- 
scent of Joseph, the putative father of the Lord." The 
two genealogies are therefore of Joseph. " But the real 
Davidical descent of Christ does not depend on either of 
them, but on Luke, i. 32, 35," and, as Alford remarks, "is 
solely derived through His mother.'' 

Matthew's Gospel possesses some features which may 
be noticed with advantage. It is the only one which re- 
cords the visit of the Magi, the flight into Egypt, and the 
murder of the Innocents — three points not only involving 
the fulfillment of prophecy, and therefore important, but 
extremely interesting in themselves. The names of the 
Magi, according to the old legends, were Gaspar, Melchior, 
and Balthazar. Their inquiry for the 'King of the Jews 
is a clear proof that they were Gentiles, for, as Trench ob- 
serves, had they been Jews, they would have inquired for 
the King of Israel. Tradition relates that, at a later day, 
they were baptized by St. Thomas in India. But nothing 



64 A HAND-BOOK OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 

authentic is known beyond the brief account contained in 
the Gospel. 

The Sermon on the Mount has been preserved by St. 
Matthew in all its fullness and beauty. It may be proper 
to add that the doxology appended to the Lord's Prayer, 
contained in the Sermon, is an interpolation, and can not 
be admitted into a critically revised text. The Received 
Text contains the passage, but it is unsustained by manu- 
script authority, and was probably derived from one of the 
Liturgies which the early Church so constantly used. 

St. Matthew also has handed down the Apostolic Com- 
mission at length in chapter x., and exceeds the other 
Evangelists in the number of the parables which he has 
recorded. He is quite full on the subject of the Resur- 
rection, of which he was, by virtue of his office, an espe- 
cial eye-witness, but singularly enough omits all mention 
of the ascension. Perhaps it may be implied from the con- 
clusion. 

The Gospel terminates with our Saviour's mission to 
the Apostles — a fitting consequence of their commission ; 
His explicit command for the affirmation of the Holy Trin- 
ity in baptism — conclusive arguments in support of both ; 
and the solemn asseveration, "Behold I am with you al- 
ways, even unto the end of the world." 



CHAPTER X. 

ST. mark's gospel. 

St. Mark, the author of the Gospel of events, was the 
son of Mary, and cousin* of Barnabus, and consequently of 
Levitical extraction. Mary was one of the first converts 
from Judaism, and her house appears to have been one of 
the resorts of the Christians, as Peter, on his delivery from 
prison by the angel, repaired thither, and found a number 
of them engaged in prayer. Barnabus and Saul, on their 
return to Antioch from Jerusalem, whither they had gone 
to bear alms, carried Mark with them. They also select- 
ed him for a companion in their missionary journey to Asia 
Minor. Mark's zeal, however, proved unequal to the en- 
terprise, and deserting the Apostles at Perga, he returned 
to a more congenial scene at Jerusalem. Subsequently, 
when Paul and Barnabas had determined to revisit the 
churches which they had planted, Barnabas proposed to 
take Mark, who was then in Antioch, along with them. 
But Paul, who had neither forgotten nor forgiven his de- 
parting from the work at Perga, positively refused, and 
the result was that Paul went on a separate mission with 
Silas, and Barnabas took his cousin and departed for Cy- 
prus. From St. Paul's language many years afterward 

* Ahepsios, Col., iv. 10, should be rendered cousin, not "sister's 
son," as in the English version. 

E 



66 A HAND-BOOK OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 

(Col., iv. 10 ; 2 Tim., iv. 11) it is evident that the division 
between himself and Mark had been healed, and that the 
latter had obtained the regard and confidence of the aged 
Apostle. 

The place where, and the time when, Mark wrote his 
Gospel are matters of conjecture. Various opinions are 
extant, but nothing reliable on the subject can be ascer- 
tained. Perhaps it was written at Rome about a.d. 67. 

From the verbal coincidences that exist between Mat- 
thew and Mark, some have inferred Mark's Gospel to be 
only an abridgment of that of Matthew ; but the signs of 
individuality and the original matter which it contains, to 
say nothing of open dissimilitudes, exclude the presump- 
tion. Eusebius and other Fathers were of the opinion 
that St. Peter, who calls Mark his son,* and who perhaps 
converted his mother Mary and himself to the faith of 
Christ, had controlled Mark, if not directly assisted him, 
in the composition of his Gospel. Whether the Gospel 
was written before or after St. Peter's death, it is not un- 
reasonable to suppose, in case they were much together, 
that the ardent mind of Peter should have exerted an in- 
fluence over the young Evangelist. Nevertheless the Gos- 
pel is not Peter's : it is the Gospel according to St. Mark. 

* 1 Peter, v. 13, " Marcus my son, v perhaps, and so most have 
thought, the well-known Evangelist, Euseb., ii. 15 ; vi. 25 ; perhaps 
the actual son of St. Peter, bearing this name. From Coloss., iv. 10, 
we learn that Mark was, a.d. 61-63, with St. Paul in Rome, but in- 
tending to journey into Asia Minor : and from 2 Tim., iv. 11, we find 
that, a.d. 67 or 68, he was in Asia Minor, and was to be brought 
with Timothy to Rome. He may have spent some of the interval 
between the two notices with St. Peter in Babylon on the Euphrates. 
— Alford. 



A HAND-BOOK OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 67 

Tradition reports Mark to have been the first Bishop of 
Alexandria. It is obvious that he wrote especially for the 
Gentile Christians. Having doubtless passed the larger 
portion of his ministry among them, and knowing that the 
Christians of Judea would be well informed by others, he 
would naturally have been predisposed to bring the Gos- 
pel home to the Gentile converts, that they also might have 
knowledge of the Son of God, and obtain life through him. 
But his interpretation of Hebrew phrases ; his explanations 
of Jewish manners and customs; his entire omission of all 
reference to the law, and apparent avoidance, as far as pos- 
sible, of any allusion to the Old Testament, put the ques- 
tion beyond a doubt. 

Eegarding our Saviour not only as the Messiah, the son 
of David, who should redeem Israel, but the Son of God, 
the Great Shepherd who was manifested that He might 
draw all nations into His fold, he hastens, with the least 
possible delay, to relate His official life. He therefore 
simply alludes to John, and passes directly to the baptism 
of Jesus — the point at which our Saviour's active work on 
earth in the redemption of man commenced. His style is 
generally terse and pointed, and if sometimes abrupt it oft- 
en rises to grandeur. The latter part of the ninth chapter 
and the whole of the thirteenth are truly sublime. 

St. Mark is distinguished for the accuracy of his details, 
the nice appreciation of truth in apparently unimportant 
matters, the minuteness of his observation, and fidelity to 
order in narration. The latter has afforded a corrective 
to Matthew's looser mode of narration. The cure of the 
child of the Syro-Phoenician woman, chapter vii. — the 



68 A HAND-BOOK OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 

healing of the possessed boy, chapter ix. — the discourse on 
the Mount of Olives, chapter xiii. — the passing reference 
to the young man in the linen cloth, peculiar to himself, 
chapter xiv. — and the account of the double crowing of 
the cock and three denials of Peter, chapter xv., are strik- 
ing examples of the care bestowed by the writer upon de- 
tails, and are well worthy of observation. 

The Gospel closes abruptly with the eighth verse of the 
last chapter. The remaining verses, for strong reasons, 
are now rejected from the original text by some critics. 
Both external and internal evidence are against them, and 
they can no longer be regarded as genuine. Either the 
final leaf of the autographic manuscript was lost, or some- 
thing prevented the author from concluding it, and a later 
hand added the last twelve verses as a substitute. They 
are, however, very ancient, and are entitled to reverence 
and confidence. 

As a whole, St. Mark's Gospel must be considered, from 
the limited number of discourses recorded, and its action, 
as principally intended to bring out the official life of 
Christ by rendering the events of it prominent — by show- 
ing forth rather what He did than what He said. 

" While it contains," says Alford, in conclusion, " little 
matter of fact which is not related in Matthew and Luke, 
and thus, generally speaking, forms only a confirmation of 
their more complete histories, it is so far from being a bar- 
ren duplicate of that part of them which is contained in it 
that it comes home to every reader with all the freshness 
of an individual mind, full of the Holy Ghost, intently 
fixed on the great object of the Christian's love and wor- 



A HAND-BOOK OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 69 

ship, reverently and affectionately following and recording 
His positions, and looks, and gestures, and giving us the 
very echo of the tones with which He spoke. And thus 
the believing student feels that the Gospel of Mark is as 
precious to him as any of the others." 



CHAPTER XI. 

st. luke's gospel. 

Of St. Luke, the beloved physician, who heard St. Paul 
preach — the second wish of St. Augustine ; of the faithful 
friend of whom the old man wrote, " Only Luke is with 
me," but very little is known. That little, however, is of 
great value. Some writers have confounded him with Lu- 
cius of Cyrene, but without reason, for the names in Greek 
are quite different. Tradition with equal truth has at- 
tributed to bim the role of an artist, and the aid of le- 
gendary lore has been invoked to prove that the old Mas- 
ter's ideas in regard to the Virgin may have been derived 
from a Madonna of Luke. 

This Evangelist is first referred to in Acts xvi. 10 as 
one of the party which in the year 54 sailed with St. Paul 
from Troas to Macedonia, in answer to the call, " Come 
over and help us." From his profession, and the sup- 
posed feeble state of St. Paul's health — cf. Acts, xvi. 6, with 
Gal., iv. 13, 14 — it has been inferred that Luke joined the 
Apostle with a view to render medical assistance. This, 
though highly probable, is by no means certain. For he 
went no farther than Philippi, where he would hardly have 
paused had he been merely the Apostle's medical adviser. 
Nothing more is heard of him until the return of St. Paul 
to Philippi in the spring of 58, when he rejoined the Apos- 



A HAND-BOOK OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 71 

tie, accompanied him on his journey to Jerusalem, spent 
two years with him at Cesarea, and finally went with him 
to Rome, where he probably remained during Paul's two 
years' residence in his " hired house." The latter, in his 
second Epistle to Timothy, makes one last and touching 
allusion to his faithful fellow-laborer : " Only Luke is with 
me." After the death of St. Paul he may have left Rome, 
but whither he went, or where he passed the residue of 
his life, or how he died, are quite uncertain. Mr. Taylor, 
in his biography of St. Luke, maintains that he removed to 
Achaia on the conclusion of his history (the Acts), where 
he soon died, at the age of eighty-four. There is also a 
tradition that his bones were interred in the church of the 
Apostles at Constantinople by Constantine or his son. 

It is highly probable that St. Luke wrote his Gospel 
during his residence at Philippi. He may have previous- 
ly collected materials for its composition, and must have 
had frequent conversations with St. Paul concerning the 
life of Christ during his short journey with the Apostle, 
which would have aided him in his task. He may also 
have revisited Judea and returned to Philippi. Nothing 
prevents the supposition. On the contrary, as Luke's Gos- 
pel must have been in part compiled from written memo- 
randa, either he must have taken them with him when he 
went to Troas, or he must have returned to obtain them. 
The speech of Elizabeth, the Magnificat, the Song of Zach- 
arias, and many other passages, were undoubtedly pre- 
served in some of those " declarations" to which he al- 
ludes in his introduction, and were verified by the Virgin 
herself. As there would have been no object for holding 



72 A HAND-BOOK OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 

V 

back the Gospel after its completion, and as it contains no 
evidence of having been retouched at a later day, it may 
be justly assumed that it was published in Macedonia prior 
to the spring of 58. 

St. Luke's Gospel, the last of the synoptic series, is in 
many respects different from the other two. The author 
does not claim to have been an eye-witness of what he re- 
lates, and therefore could not have been one of the seventy, 
even had he not been excluded from the number of the 
latter by his Gentile birth ; but he claims to have had a 
" perfect understanding of all things from the first," and 
therefore to have been especially qualified to write an au- 
thoritative narrative of those things which had been deliv- 
ered by the eye-witnesses. He refers to " declarations" 
of others on the subject, but without impugning their truth- 
fulness. , Alford believes these declarations to have formed 
part of the " common substratum of apostolic teaching," 
which formed the " original source of the common part of 
the three Gospels." Clearly they were not evangels, or 
they would have been so styled. Mark and John having 
written later, and Matthew's variations from Luke, utter- 
ly forbid the possibility of the latter having had access to 
the other three. 

Although St. Paul must have exercised great influence 
over Luke, and may have generally affected the author's 
treatment of his subject, yet the hand of St. Paul can only 
be directly traced in the account of the institution of the 
Lord's Supper — Luke, xxii. 19. That account accords al- 
most verbally with the one in 1 Cor., xi. 23, which the 
Apostle says he received from the Lord himself. The 



A HAND-BOOK OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 73 

Evangelist doubtless availed himself of all ordinary means 
to obtain thorough information. From the Virgin Mary 
herself he unquestionably derived so much of the Gospel 
as relates to John, the birth of Christ, and the personal 
history of Mary. He could not have failed, also, to have 
conversed at length with eye-witnesses who had journey- 
ed from Jordan to Calvary, seen the prints of the nails, 
and witnessed the ascension of the glorified Redeemer, 
the Son of God with power. From such sources, and 
with such opportunities, then, under the guidance of the 
Holy Spirit, the Evangelist produced the narrative which 
has been not less admired for its beauty than for its ac- 
curacy. 

Presuming the Gospel to have been written for the 
Church, and not simply for Theophilus, to whom it is ad- 
dressed, it can not fail to be observed that it is more gen- 
eral in its character than the other synoptic Gospels, more 
intended for universal circulation. " There is no marked 
regard paid," says Alford, " to Jewish readers, as in Mat- 
thew ; nor to Gentiles, as in Mark ; if there be any pref- 
erence, it seems rather on the side of the latter." The 
genealogy, though Adamic, the allusions to the Old Testa- 
ment, and especially the Magnificat, the triumphal song 
of the Mother in Israel, arouse the Jewish mind ; the clear 
expression of the doctrine of justification by faith (chap. 
xvii. 10; xviii. 14) comes home to the Gentile reader; 
and the record of those sayings which affirm Christ's un- 
restricted love for all men, whom he had made of " one 
blood," evince that it was written for both Jews and Gen- 
tiles. It is the universal Gospel; it witnesses to the 



74 A HAND-BOOK OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 

Christian Church in every nation, and appeals with equal 
force to the hearts and consciences of all. 

St. Luke associated much with Jews as well as Greeks. 
The style of his Gospel is therefore not altogether pure, 
though pure Greek was very rare at that time. It is, how- 
ever, refined and harmonious, and displays the educated 
mind which might be predicated of the writer from his 
profession. The introduction is probably the finest speci- 
men of classic Greek in the New Testament, and could 
only have come from the cultivated pen of one well ac- 
quainted with the Grecian models. His residence in 
Greece is thought by some to account for this, but educa- 
tion and reading must have laid the foundation of a style 
so replete with grace. 

St. Luke's Gospel is more extended in its narration, and 
more lucid in its arrangement than any of the other Gos- 
pels. It comprehends not only the events of our Saviour's 
life, but records with accuracy worthy of imitation his " dis- 
courses, observations, and even occasional sayings." The 
diversity between the genealogies of Matthew and Luke 
has already been alluded to in the chapter on Matthew's 
Gospel. In regard to the chronological error supposed to 
exist in Luke, ii. 2, it is only necessary to say that Mr. 
Zumpt, of Berlin, after a thorough investigation, has es- 
tablished that Cyrenius was twice Governor of Syria, and 
that the taxing or enrollment referred to occurred during 
the period of his first official term. Thus the error which 
has worried so many proves to be no error, and the accu- 
racy of Luke's narrative is sustained. Were there data 
extant by which the accounts of the Resurrection could be 



A HAND-BOOK OF TPIE NEW TESTAMENT. 75 

examined, no doubt they would be found to harmonize 
perfectly. But diversities in the Gospels have their ad- 
vantage ; for, if there were a perfect verbal agreement be- 
tween them, the enemies of Christ would find in that fact 
undoubted evidence of collusion. As it is, no such charge 
can be made, and a want of harmony in every minute 
point does not detract from the reliance to be placed on 
the main and important facts recorded. It may be added 
that rationalistic writers have endeavored to cast a doubt 
upon the authenticity of the first two chapters of Luke, 
but their arguments have been entirely refuted. 

St. Luke's Gospel contains many things peculiar to it- 
self — viz., the incidents connected with the birth of the 
Forerunner John : the Taxing : the Annunciation and oth- 
er facts relating personally to the Virgin : the watching 
of the Shepherds and the Song of the Heavenly Host : the 
testimony of Simeon and Anna : the return to Nazareth : 
the visits to the Temple in accordance with the law : our 
Saviour's conversation with the Doctors : the being sub- 
ject to his parents : the miraculous restoration of the young 
man at Nain : the very long and deeply important array 
of events, parables, and discourses, almost entirely pecul- 
iar to Luke, recorded from chapter ix. 51, to chapter xviii. 
15 : among which may be especially mentioned the mis- 
sion of the Seventy; the parable of Lazarus; the message 
to Herod; the incident of the penitent thief; the visit of 
Peter and John to the Sepulchre ; the journey to Em- 
maus ; and, to crown all, the Ascension. Such are some 
of the striking peculiarities of the Gospel, according to the 
" brother whose praise was in all the churches." "In 



76 A HAND-BOOK OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 

completeness," says Alford, "it must rank first among the 
four. The Evangelist begins with the announcement of 
the birth of Christ's Forerunner, and concludes with the 
particulars of the ascension : thus embracing the whole 
great procession of events by which our Bedemption by Christ 
was ushered in, accomplished, and sealed in heaven. And by 
recording the allusion to the promise of the Father (chap, 
xxiv. 49) he has introduced, so to speak, a note of passage 
to that other history, in which the fulfillment of that prom- 
ise, the great result of Redemption, was to be related." 



CHAPTER XII. 

st. john's gospel. 

The disciple whom Jesus loved was the son of Zebedee 
and Salome, and the brother of James the Great. His 
mother was one of the Galilean women who were devoted 
to Jesus during his earthly course. Of Zebedee it is only- 
known that he was a Galilean fisherman, in which occu- 
pation he was assisted by his sons and hired servants. 
James and John were both called by our Saviour " Boan- 
erges." Whether John was older or younger than his 
brother is uncertain, but it is generally supposed that he 
was younger than James, and the youngest of the Twelve. 
Indeed there is very little doubt of it. There is eveiy rea- 
son to believe that John was one of the two disciples of 
the Baptist (John, i. 35) who followed Jesus on hearing 
John exclaim, " Behold the Lamb of God!" He was, 
therefore, one of the first attracted by our Saviour, though 
his actual call did not take place until Jesus saw him 
again, by the sea of Galilee (Matthew, v. 21), in company 
with his father and brother. At the sound of the voice 
of Jesus he and his brother left their father and followed 
Him. John appears to have enjoyed the nearest and most 
affectionate relations with his Lord, and save for a few 
minutes, at the time of His apprehension, when all desert- 



78 A HAND-BOOK OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 

ed Him except the Father, he continued the devoted fol- 
lower of Christ until his life's end. 

St. John was always selected by our Saviour, along with 
Peter and James, to be with Him on every occasion of 
peculiar interest or importance. He was present at the 
restoration of the daughter of Jairus to life, and was on 
the Mount of the Transfiguration. He occupied the seat 
of honor at the last Paschal feast ever held, and received 
the first eucharistic bread and ivine ever delivered from the 
hands of the Great High-Priest of our profession. He was 
in the Garden of Gethsemane, though he was weary and 
could not watch. He was present from the beginning to 
the end of the most fearful tragedy that ever was enacted 
— the trial, and mocking, and scourging, and execution of 
the Son of man ; and in the last minutes of that awful 
scene received — in the words, " Mother, behold thy son" — 
tjie most touching evidence of love and confidence which 
his Master could bestow. He heard the expiring cry of 
Jesus as He committed His spirit to the Father, and saw 
the water and the blood flow from the body of Him whom 
they had pierced. At the report of the Resurrection he 
outran Peter, in his ardor, and arrived the first disciple at 
the sepulchre ; and again, by the sea of Galilee, he pre- 
ceded Peter with those solemn words, which burned with- 
in his heart and trembled on his lips — " It is the Lord ;" 
and he was not the least among the men of Galilee who 
stood gazing into heaven when the Lord Jesus, having fin- 
ished His course on earth, ascended to heaven in glory. 

After the crucifixion John seems to have temporarily 
returned to his former occupation, but abandoned it again 



A HAND-BOOK OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. id 

on discovering his Master on the shore, and it does not 
appear that he ever resumed it. Of his ministry very 
little has been recorded. He remained at Jerusalem, in 
accordance with the command (Luke, xxiv. 49), until he 
was baptized with the Holy Ghost on the day of Pente- 
cost, and took part in the first preaching of the Word. 
Subsequently he appears to have been associated with 
Peter, and to have yielded precedence to the latter. As 
their apostolic power and office were perfectly equal, this 
must have arisen not merely from Peter's superior age, but 
from a natural boldness and energy of character which 
prompted the latter to take the lead. John was sent also 
by the Church with Peter to Samaria — the restriction 
(Matt., x. 5) having been removed (Acts, i. 8) — to lay 
hands upon those whom Philip had baptized. At a later 
day, in the year 50, when St. Paul was at Jerusalem on 
the matter of circumcision, John was there (Gal., ii. 9), 
and must therefore have been a member of the first Coun- 
cil of the Church. No further allusion is made to John 
in the New Testament, except what is contained in the 
first chapter of the Apocalypse, and which came from his 
own pen. 

The early Fathers of the Church concur in the opinion 
that St. John passed the latter part of his life at Ephesus. 
When he went to Asia is a matter of conjecture. But as 
St. Paul founded the Church in Asia, and in his last Epis- 
tle to Timothy makes no allusion to John, it is manifest 
that the latter could not have gone to Ephesus until after 
Paul's, death. That took place in 68 at the latest ; and 
as prior to the encircling of Jerusalem by Titus, in 69, 



80 A HAND-BOOK OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 

doubtless many Christians withdrew — some, according to 
Eusebius, to Pella — it is not unreasonable to suppose that 
John, if he had been residing at Jerusalem, departed at 
that time to Ephesus. The Church in Asia, if not plant- 
ed, was at least watered by St. John, and was for a num- 
ber of years under his authority. In the exercise of his 
apostolic office he gave offense to the Emperor Domitian, 
and was banished to Patmos. Nerva, however, who suc- 
ceeded to the empire the same year, 96, released John 
from confinement, and permitted him to return to Ephesus. 
The youngest, and now the last and oldest of the Twelve 
Apostles, passed his declining years in teaching his chil- 
dren to love one another because Christ had loved them. 
He was the Apostle of love unfeigned — the charity of St. 
Paul. Polycrates says that he "rests. at Ephesus." His 
death occurred in the third of Trajan, a.d. 100, at the age 
of ninety-four. A tradition adds that John was buried on 
the side of Mount Prion, near Ephesus, and that his bones 
w r ere translated from thence by Constantine or his son to 
the Church of the Apostles at Constantinople. 

Irenasus, Bishop of Lyons — the pupil of Polycarp, Bish- 
op of Smyrna, who was the pupil of St. John — who lived 
in the second century, relates in one of his epistles that 
" John the disciple of the Lord, who also leaned upon His 
bosom, put forth a Gospel while he abode in Ephesus of 
Asia." The time when Irenaeus wrote, and the oppor- 
tunity he possessed of obtaining exact information, render 
his testimony conclusive in regard to the place where 
John's Gospel was published. 

But the time when it was written can not be so satis- 



A HAND-BOOK OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 81 

factorily ascertained. There are two opinions on the sub- 
ject. One places it before and the other after the destruc- 
tion of Jerusalem. The proem affords sufficient evidence 
that it was written in a Grecian atmosphere. Ephesus 
may therefore be justly considered the place where it was 
composed as well as published. John removed to Asia, as 
has been shown, about 69. It is not probable that he 
would have commenced writing immediately ; neither, if 
it had been in his mind to put forth a Gospel, would he 
have very long deferred the duty. Liicke observes that 
the style is that of a matured but not of an aged writer. 
a.d. 80 may therefore be assumed as a sufficient approx- 
imation to the time of its publication. 

From St. John having written last, and from his having 
recorded much that is important which the previous writ- 
ers had omitted, not a few have concluded that he wrote 
to supply the deficiencies of the synoptic Gospels. But it 
does not appear from the passages common to all that John 
could have seen those Gospels, though he must have been 
acquainted with the " declarations" referred to by Luke. 
There is no ground therefore for believing the Gospel of 
John to be merely a supplementary work. 

St. John has been likewise charged with having written 
merely to combat the heresies which had crept into the 
Church through the operation of the Grecian philosophy. 
That grievous heresies in regard to the person and nature 
of Christ were developed in Asia as early even as the first 
century can not be doubted. That the Apostle contended 
ardently for the " faith once delivered," against the open 
enemy and the secret foe, will be readily admitted ; but 

F 



82 A HAND-BOOK OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 

that he wrote his Gospel to oppose Gnostic error alone, 
can hardly be supposed. Neither a supplementary nor a 
polemic object can be exclusively predicated of it, nor yet, 
as late writers imagine, a combination of both. And it is 
not a complete life of Jesus, after the manner of St. Luke. 
It is the independent and convincing testimony of an eye- 
witness to the nature, person, and office of Christ — the 
Light that came into the world. 

Deistic writers have attempted to impugn the authority 
of the prologue to St. John's Gospel, or the Golden Proem 
as it was anciently called. But the genuineness of the 
proem has not been shaken, and were it not that it affords 
such incontrovertible evidence of the divinity of Christ it 
probably never would have been called in question. In 
regard to chapters vii. 53, viii. 1-11, it must be admitted 
that the passage presents such serious difficulties that crit- 
ics have felt compelled to exclude it from an emended text. 
No point of doctrine, however, is affected by it, and the 
question of the authenticity of the passage is only of ma- 
terial interest to the Greek scholar. The last chapter of 
the Gospel, the genuineness of which has been denied by 
some critics, is found in' all the principal Codices, and is 
supported by ample internal evidence. " I am persuaded," 
says Alford, "that in this chapter we have a fragment, 
both authentic and genuine, added, for reasons apparent on 
the face of it, by the Apostle himself, bearing evidence of 
his hand, but in a c second manner' — a later style— proba- 
bly in the decline of life." 

St. John's Gospel is marked by great simplicity and 
beauty of style, though it is Hebraic in diction and the 



A HAND-BOOK OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 83 

treatment of the subject. The Apostle does not simply 
narrate like the other Evangelists, nor does he reason like 
St. Paul-; but he speaks with " dogmatic authority." His 
theme is the mystery of Christ. He records the sublime 
discourses of our Saviour, and unfolds His Divine nature 
and covenant relation with man. Being occupied with 
the deep things of God, with the life of Christ, which is 
the life of the world — the life which dwells in the Church 
by the Holy Spirit — there is a depth of tone, a harmony, 
and a beauty which render the Gospel of St. John truly 
wonderful. 

"This is the only one of the four Gospels," says Alford, 
" to which a pre-arranged and systematic plan can with any 
certainty be ascribed. The prologue contains a formal 
setting forth of the subject-matter of the Gospel : l That the 
Eternal Creator Word became flesh, and was glorified by 
means of that work which he undertook in the flesh.' 
This glorification of Christ he follows out under several 
heads: 1. The testimony borne to Him by the Baptist; 
2. His miracles; 3. His conflict with the persecution and 
malice of the Jews; 4. His own testimony in his dis- 
courses, which are copiously related ; 5. His sufferings, 
death, and resurrection. And this His glorification is the 
accomplishment of the purpose of the Father, by setting Him 
forth as the Light and Life of the world — the one Intercessor 
and Mediator, by ivhose accomplished work the Holy Spirit is 
procured for men ; and through whom all spiritual help, 
and comfort, and hope of glory is derived." Such are the 
general features, scope, and design of the Gospel according 
to St. John. 



84 A HAND-BOOK OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 

Among many marked peculiarities, all of which can not 
be detailed, John's Gospel is distinguished — for the pro- 
logue, which proclaims the eternity of the Word which 
was made flesh, and gives tone and character to the whole : 
for a report of the sayings of John the Baptist, which 
might have been expected from one of his disciples : for a 
history of the ministry of our Lord in Judea, omitted en- 
tirely in the synoptic Gospels : for a record of the first 
three Passovers : for the first purification of the Temple 
and the attending circumstances, both before and after: 
for an account of the first of miracles which Jesus did at 
Cana of Galilee : for the interview of our Saviour with 
the woman of Samaria : for the stupendous miracle of the 
raising of Lazarus, which so stimulated the wrath of the 
Jews : for the prophecy of Caiaphas (chapter xi. 49) : for 
the visit to Ephraim: for the voice from heaven in the 
Temple: for the washing of the disciples' feet: for the 
wonderful discourses, embraced in the 14th, 15th, and 
16th chapters, and the nobly beautiful prayer to the Fa- 
ther contained in the 17th : for the fact of the going back 
and falling to the ground of the guard at the sound of 
His voice in the garden — evidence that His submission 
was voluntary : for the statement that it was Peter who 
smote off the ear of the servant of the High-Priest, and 
that the servant's name was Malchus : for the saying of 
Jesus, "Behold thy mother:" for the fulfillment of the 
prophecies (chapter xx. 36, 37), "A bone of Him shall 
not be broken," and "They shall look on Him whom they 
pierced:" for the exclamation of Thomas, "My Lord and 
my God :" and for the whole of the last chapter, compre- 



A HAND-BOOK OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 85 

hending events and narrations of the deepest interest and 
importance. 

St. John the Baptist came in the spirit and power of 
Elias to testify of the Messiah. St. John the Evangelist 
recorded the promise of the Comforter. As the Baptist, 
the last of the prophets, who preceded the Gospel, wit- 
nessed of Christ, so the Evangelist, the disciple of the 
Baptist, and the disciple whom Jesus loved, witnessed of 
the Holy Ghost. The Gospel of St. John is the Gospel 
of the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit — the sublime 
testimony to the Holy, Blessed, and Glorious Trinity, 



CHAPTER XIII. 

THE ACTS OF THE APOSTLES. 

The Gospels terminate with the renewed assurance of 
the immediate fulfillment of the promise of the Holy 
Ghost, and the ascension of the Lord Jesus. The frui- 
tion of that promise on the day of Pentecost, and its im- 
portant consequences, form the subject of the Acts of the 
Apostles. "With this great event — the descent of the 
Holy Ghost, to abide with his Church till He shall come 
again to judge the. world — commences," says Jarvis, "the 
History of the Christian Church." 

The author of the first Christian History, which has re- 
ceived from the transcribers of the Manuscripts the appel- 
lation of the "Acts of the Apostles," is universally con- 
ceded to have been St. Luke. The exordium would be 
conclusive were not the style sufficient evidence of the 
fact. 

Luke probably commenced his second work during the 
two years which he abode at Cesarea, a.d. 59-61. From 
the final verse, however, it is apparent that he did not 
publish it until the year 63, or the conclusion of Paul's 
first imprisonment, which was passed under military ward 
in "his own hired house" at Rome. It is evident also, 
from the subsequent portion of Paul's life being omitted, 
that the publication took place about that time. The last 



A HAND-BOOK OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 87 

Epistle tcr Timothy (chap. iv. 11) refers to Luke as being 
then at Kome. As this Epistle was written when the old 
man was "ready to be offered" — perhaps in 68 — the lat- 
ter part of his life must have been well known to Luke, 
and would have been embodied in the Acts of the Apos- 
tles had they not been previously published. 

The text of the Acts abounds with difficulties, and pre- 
sents more various readings than that of any other book in 
the New Testament, except the Eevelation. This is sup- 
posed to have arisen from the midway position which the 
Book occupies between the Gospels and Epistles. The 
transcribers, observing its connection with what preceded 
and what succeeded it, were doubtless prompted to indulge 
a spirit of correction, in order to accommodate their ideas 
of harmony. Notwithstanding the difficulties attending it, 
an excellent text has been obtained. Three passages con- 
tained in the Anglican Version may be mentioned as now 
excluded from a pure text of the original — viz., chapter 
viii. 37 ; chapter ix. 5, last half — 6, first half; chapter xv. 
84. It will be perceived that they are not of material im- 
portance. 

For the composition of the Acts of the Apostles the au- 
thor had various and abundant sources of information. 
From the Church at Jerusalem he could have obtained 
accurate accounts of every thing that occurred there. 
Written documents, containing the speeches of Peter, of 
Stephen, of James, and of Paul, had doubtless been pre- 
served, as well as transcripts of letters, and other memo- 
randa, valuable and interesting to the early Christians. 
Some of these Luke probably only copied or translated. 



88 A HAND-BOOK OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 

for all the speeches made at Jerusalem must have been in 
the Hebrew dialect of the day. There are internal evi- 
dences which sustain such an opinion. The apology of 
Stephen, though no doubt verified by the "young man" 
who was consenting unto the death of the first martyr, is 
so characteristic that it bears evidence to its own genuine- 
ness. It is neither a composition of St. Paul nor of St. 
Luke. The speeches of Peter bespeak the ardent disci- 
ple, who wrapped his fisher's coat about him and cast him- 
self into the sea, and sfrongly resemble in point of style 
the epistles which he afterward wrote. The decision of 
James at the First Council (chap. xv. 14) bears the im- 
press of the Apostle of works, and the Greeting contained 
in his circular letter is precisely the same as that contained 
in his epistle, and evinces that Greek was the language 
employed. From Philip the Evangelist, who resided at 
Cesarea, Luke could have learned all that related to his 
ministry. At Cesarea, also, he might easily have gather- 
ed the story of Cornelius, and the particulars which dis- 
tinguish his minute account of Herod Agrippa — so supe- 
rior in details to that of Josephus. He could likewise 
have obtained at the same place a copy of the letter of 
Claudius Lysias to Felix — evidently translated verbally 
from the original Latin. St. Paul, of course, fully recount- 
ed to Luke all that took place during their separation, and 
in some instances, perhaps, reported his very words. The 
conversion of Saul, beyond all cavil, came from the great 
actor in that wonderful scene. No one can mistake the 
hand of the Apostle in the speech on Mars Hill. The dis- 
course to the Ephesian elders, according to Alford, is a 



A HAND-BOOK OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 89 

" rich store-bouse of phrases and sentiments peculiar to 
Paul." And the apologies before the Jews, before Felix, 
before Agrippa, and before Festus, are in the highest de- 
gree Pauline. Yet it may be admitted that where Luke 
was present and recorded from memory he may not have 
reported with absolute verbal accuracy ; but a comparison 
between Paul's speeches and Paul's epistles removes all 
question in regard to the authorship of the former. A 
wide difference exists between St. Luke r s Gospel and the 
Acts of the Apostles in reference to the part taken by St. 
Paul in their composition. The former was written by 
the Evangelist when alone, and bears very little evidence 
of Paul's hand ; the latter was written under Paul's eye, 
and indicates clearly that he aided and interested himself 
in its composition. The narrative part of the Acts, how- 
ever, strongly resembles Luke's Gospel, and many minor 
points evince that the work was written by the cultivated 
and beloved physician. A better guaranty could not be 
given for accuracy and beauty. 

Our Saviour having visited the barren fig-tree — the Jew- 
ish Nation — during three years, and having found no fruit 
thereon, commanded it to wither. It was already dead at 
the root, although it continued to exhibit some external 
signs of life. But the latter were no longer of any avail ; 
henceforth the Gospel, which had been hid under the law, 
and confined to the Chosen People, was to be preached to 
every nation under heaven, and all men were to be com- 
manded every where to repent. After the ascension of the 
Lord the Apostles remained quietly at Jerusalem, waiting 
the promise of the Holy Ghost. No sooner had He de- 



90 A HAND-BOOK OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 

scended than the Christian Church became a living, act- 
ive, aggressive organization — aggressive against all other 
forms of religion, against sin in every shape, and witness- 
ing both to Jew and Gentile, bond and free, that men 
should turn unto the Lord Jesus, for there was "none 
other name under heaven given among men whereby they 
must be saved." A history of the planting of the Church, 
which ensued upon the outpouring of the Holy Spirit, was 
the object of Luke in writing the Acts of the Apostles. 
That planting was commenced by St. Peter on the day of 
Pentecost, when the Church was reopened to the House 
of Israel, salvation offered to the Jew, and the barren fig- 
tree, watered by the precious blood of Christ, was called 
upon to blossom and bear fruit for the crucified Redeemer. 
About three thousand, pricked in their hearts by Peter's 
Pentecostal speech, believed and were baptized. Subse- 
quently, in Cesarea, at the house of Cornelius, St. Peter 
opened the Church to the Gentiles, and the Holy Ghost 
was poured out in confirmation. Thus St. Peter was made 
the leading agent in carrying Christ and His Church to the 
Jew first, and afterward to the Gentile, and verified the 
appellation of the " rock" given to him by his Divine Mas- 
ter. But it pleased God to raise up a chosen vessel in the 
person of St. Paul, who should especially preach the Gos- 
pel unto the Gentile world. The ministry of Paul occu- 
pies the larger part of the Acts, and need not be described. 
Of the other Apostles very little is said. A tradition was 
current among the early Christians that the Apostles had 
been commanded to remain ten years in Palestine, but no 
foundation for it can be traced. It is probable, however, 



A HAND-BOOK OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 91 

that they did not immediately separate, for the persecu- 
tion which followed the martyrdom of Stephen scattered 
the Church, "except the Apostles." In due time, how- 
ever, each one addressed himself to the work, and went 
whither the Spirit carried him, preaching the Lord Jesus, 
and declaring the glad tidings of salvation which was 
through His name, and only through His name, promised 
to those who should believe and be baptized. In regard 
to their lives and deaths but little has been preserved, but 
it is generally supposed that the former were passed in un- 
wearied devotion to the cause, which was finally, except in 
the case of St. John, sealed by their blood. The Acts of 
the Apostles comprehends, therefore, the planting of the 
Church. 

The following chronological digest is nearly all copied 
from Alford, and is adapted to assist the reader in the pe- 
rusal both of the Acts of the Apostles and the Epistles of 
St. Paul : 

a.d. 34. — The Ascension (Thursday, May 6), precisely one year 
after the Transfiguration. 

Pentecost (Sunday, May 16), the anniversary of the giving 
of the law on Mount Sinai. 

Events at Jerusalem, chaps, ii. vi. — Progress of the Faith. 

a.d. 37. — Martyrdom of Stephen, chap. vii. — Dispersion of the 
Disciples, chap. vhi. 4. — Philip, and afterward Peter and John, 
at Samaria — Philip converts the Ethiopian eunuch, and preach- 
es from Azotus to Cesarea. 

Conversion or Saul late in the year. 

a.d. 38. — Peace of the Churches, chap. ix. 31. — Circuit of Peter, 
chap. ix. 32-43. — He preaches to Cornelius and his Gentile 
friends at Cesarea, chap. x. 1. — Gives an account of the same 
to .the Church at Jerusalem, chap. xi. 1. — Saul spends three 
years in Arabia and Damascus, Gal., i. 15-18. 

a.d. 40. — First Visit of Saul to Jerusalem. — Meets Barnabas and 



92 A HAND-BOOK OP THE NEW TESTAMENT. 

Peter, chap. ix. 26-29; Gal., i. 18. — Remains fifteen days; 
then, being in danger of his life, is sent by the brethren to Tar- 
sus. 

a.d. 41. — Meantime the Gospel had been preached to Gentiles at 
Antioch, chap. xi. 19. — Barnabas is sent thither by the Church 
at Jerusalem — Consequently he was an Apostle. — He rejoices 
at what had taken place, and fetches Saul from Tarsus. They 
remain a year at Antioch, chap. xi. 26. — The disciples are first 
called Christians. — Agabus prophesies a famine : supplies sent 
to the brethren in Judea by the hands of Barnabas and Saul. 

a..d. 43. — Second Visit of Saul to Jerusalem. 

a.d. 44. — Martyrdom of James the Great, brother of John, chap, 
xii. 2. — Imprisonment (at the Passover) and miraculous escape 
of Peter. — Death of Herod Agrippa at Cesarea. 

a.d. 45. — First Missionary Journey of Barnabas and Saul (Paul) to 
Cyprus and Asia Minor, chaps, xiii. and xiv. 

a.d. 46. — This journey hardly occupies more than a year. 

A..D. 47. — They return to Antioch in 47 or 48, and remain some time 
there. 

a.d. 48. — Dispute respecting circumcision, chap. xv. 1. — Paul and 
Barnabas go up to Jerusalem on the matter. 

a.d. 50. — Third Visit of Paul to Jerusalem, chap. xv. 2, 3; Gal., 
ii. 1 — fourteen years inclusive from Paul's conversion*. They 
return and tarry at Antioch, teaching and preaching, chap. xv. 
35. — Interview between Paul and Peter, Gal., ii. 11. — Dispute 
and separation between Paul and Barnabas, chap. xv. 39. 

a.d. 51. — Second Missionary Journey of Paul with Silas, chap. xv. 
40 ; also Timothy, chap. xvi. 1-4. — They visit the churches, de- 
liver the decrees of the First Council, and go through Phrygia 
and Galatia. — Paul sick, Gal., iv. 13, 14. — They are forbidden 
by the Holy Ghost to preach in Asia,* chap. xvi. 6, and Bi- 
thynia, 7. They pass by Mysia and go to Troas. 

Macedonian Call. — Luke joins Paul, perhaps as a physician. 
— They arrive at Philippi. — Luke remains at Philippi. — Paul 
visits Amphipolis, Apollonia, Thessalonica, and Berea, where 
he leaves Timothy and Silas. He goes to Athens, probably by 
sea. He remains there alone, and sends a message to Silas and 

* The Boman Province of Asia here referred to includes only 
Mysia, Lydia, and Caria. Cf. Acts, ii. 9. 



A HAND-BOOK OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 93 

Timotheus to coine to him. Preaches in Athens. — He goes to 
Corinth, where he remains a year and a half, chap, xviii. 11. 

First and Second Epi 'sties to the Thessalonians written. Paul 
sails for the Pentecost at Jerusalem. He stops at Ephesus. 
a.d. 54. — Fourth Visit of Paul to Jerusalem via Cesarea, chap, 
xviii. 22. — He returns to Antioch, whence he traveled through 
the "upper coasts and came to Ephesus." Meanwhile Apollos 
is preaching at Corinth, chap. xix. 1. 

Paul remains three years at Ephesus, chap. xx. 31 — until 
Pentecost, 57. (Epistle to the Galatians ?) 

An unrecorded visit to Corinth Alford supposes to have oc- 
curred during Paul's three years' residence at Ephesus. On 
his return the Apostle must have written a brief letter to the 
Corinthians (1 Cor., v. 9), which has been lost, 
a.d. 57. — First Epistle to the Corinthians written about Easter. — 
About Pentecost, after the tumult (chap. xix. 23), Paul jour- 
neys to Macedonia (chap. xx. 1 ; 2 Cor., ii. 12, 13), where he 
writes the (2 Cor., ix. 2) 

Second Epistle to the Corinthians. After he had gone over 
those parts which included Illyricum* (Rom., xv. 19), he came 
to Greece. There he winters, chap. xx. 2. 
a.d. 58. — Epistle to the Romans written from Corinth. Rom., xvi. 1, 
23. (Epistle to the Galatians ?) 

In the spring Paul sets out by land for Jerusalem — spends 
Easter at Philippi — is rejoined by Luke. — They sail April 5, 
touch at Troas, Miletus, Patara, Tyre, Ptolemais, and arrive 
at Cesarea, where they find Philip. 

Fifth Visit of Paul to Jerusalem, a few days before Pente- 
cost, chap. xx. 1 ; xxi. 1G. Cf. xx. 16. He is seized by the 
Asiatic Jews in the Temple, brought before Ananias and the 

* From the expression used in Rom., xv. 19 it is questionable 
whether the Apostle went into Illyricum or only to the boundary of 
it. But if he had not preached in Illyricum, would he have alluded 
to it at all ? Besides, Dalmatia, the Southern District of Illyricum 
— the place which Titus went to (2 Tim., iv. 10) — is probably the 
country referred to. The region of Illyricum lay upon the north- 
western frontier of Macedonia, and, according to the Apostle's con- 
temporary, Tacitus, included within its extensive limits Dalmatia, 
Panonia, and Moesia. 



94 A HAND-BOOK OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 

Sanhedrim, rescued by the Tribune Lysias from the plots of the 
Jews, and sent to Cesarea and to Felix, where he is accused by 
Ananias and the Sanhedrim, and kept in prison by Felix, chap. 
xxi. 27 ; xxiii. 25. 

a.d. 59. — Paul in prison at Cesarea. 

a.d. 60. — Porcius Festus supersedes Felix. Paul being accused be- 
fore Festus by the Jews, and in danger of being taken to be 
tried at Jerusalem, he appeals to Caesar, chap. xxv. — is heard 
before Agrippa and Festus — and sent off by sea to Rome late 
in the autumn. He is shipwrecked at Malta, where he winters. 

a.d. 61. — Paul arrives in Rome (in February), and, being kept in 
military custody, dwells and preaches two years in his own hired 
house. 

a.d. 63. — At the end of this time, probably, the publication of the 
Acts takes place, and all beyond is tradition or conjecture. 

Epistles to the JEphesians, Colossians, Philemon, and perhaps 
Philippians, written probably during the two years' imprison- 
ment, from 61 to 63, at Rome. 

The Book of the Acts of the Apostles terminates at this 
point. The residue of St. Paul's life and ministry will be 
ajluded to elsewhere. 

To facilitate the reader, a list of the Apostles is added, 
and a portion of the genealogy of the Herods referred to in 
the Gospels and Acts. 

LIST OF THE APOSTLES. 
See Matthew, x. 2 ; Mark, iii. 16 ; Luke, vi. 14 ; Acts, i. 13. 

1. Andrew. John, i. 40. 

2. Simon Peter. 

3. James, son of Zebedee. 

4. John, son of Zebedee. 

5. Philip. John, i. 43. 

6. Bartholomew or Nathanael. John, i. 45. 

7. Matthew or Levi, son of Alpheus. Luke, v. 27. 

8. James, son of Alpheus. 

9. Jude, son of Alpheus, Thaddeus, or Lebbeus. 
10. Thomas, or Didymus. 



A HAND-BOOK OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 95 

11. Simon Zelotes, or the Canaanite. 

12. Judas Iscariot. 

Matthias numbered with the eleven. Acts, i. 26. 

James, the brother of the Lord. Acts, xii. 17; xv. 13 ; xxi. 

18. 1 Cor., xv. 7. Gal., i. 19 ; ii. 9, 12. 
Paul. 
Barnabas. Acts, iv. 36 ; xi. 22. 



PART OF THE HEROD GENEALOGY. 
Herod the Great. Matt., ii. 1. 

Herod married ten wives. We subjoin the names of 
four: 

2. Marianme. | 5. Mariamne, j 6. Malthace. | 7. Cleopatra. | 



l ' i 



| Herod Agrippa. | Herodias. [ | Herod Philip, | | Archilaus. | Herod Antipas. | | Philip | 

Acts, xii. 1; Matth., deserted by Matth., Matth. xiv. married 

xx. 20. xiv. Herodias. ii. 22. Salome 



the dan- 
cer. 



I 



| King Agrippa. | Berenice. | Drusilla, | 
Acts, xxv. wife of Felix. 



CHAPTER XIV, 

ST. PAUL. THE EPISTLES. STYLE OF ST. PAUL. 

St. Paul was a Jew of Tarsus. With reference to the 
descendants of Abraham three appellations, quite different 
in their acceptation, are employed in the New Testament. 
A Hebrew is one born of Hebrew parents, and whose na- 
tive tongue is Hebrew. A Grecian, or Hellenist, is one 
born of Hebrew parents, but whose native tongue is Greek. 
Jew is the national distinction as opposed to Gentile, Is- 
raelite is the theocratic name, and involves the highest 
privilege of the chosen people — the knowledge of the true 
God. St. Paul "was not a Grecian, but he combined in 
himself the other three terms, or was, as he styled it, a 
Hebrew of the Hebrews. He was also a Roman citi- 
zen ; neither libertus, a freed-man, nor libertinus, son of a 
. freed-man ; but ingenuus, free-born of free-born parentage. 
Whence he obtained this right of citizenship is a matter 
of conjecture. No satisfactory conclusion has been reached 
in regard to it. Only the fact, therefore, is known. Pre- 
viously to his conversion he was called Saul. After he 
left Antioch on his first missionary journey he was called 
Paul. Some have supposed that he took the name from 
Sergius Paulus, the Roman Deputy whom he converted at 
Paphos (Acts, xiii. 6-12), but there is no ground for the 
supposition. He either had two names — a custom very 



A HAND-BOOK OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 97 

common among the Jews as well as the Gentiles — or, what 
is more likely, Paul is the Grecian form of the Hebrew 
Saul. 

Tarsus, the birth-place of Paul, was a city of Cilicia, 
situated upon the Cydnus. The latter is celebrated for 
having nearly caused the death of Alexander, on his first 
expedition, by the coldness of its waters, the purity of . 
which had induced the youthful monarch unwarily to 
plunge in. It was also the scene, in later years, of that 
display of Oriental magnificence exhibited by Cleopatra to 
win the heart of Antony, and which has been rendered 
famous by the descriptions of Shakspeare* and Dry den. 
Tarsus vied with Athens, Alexandria, and Corinth in lit- 
erature and luxury. It was a Grecian city in an Asiatic 
atmosphere. Its gymnasia abounded with scholars, and 
its academies and groves with genius and learning. Art, 
intellect, cultivation, and refinement lent their aid to ren- 
der the place attractive. It was no "mean city" of which 
St. Paul boasted himself a citizen. 

In this abode of learning the Apostle acquired that 
knowledge of Greek literature and philosophy which he 
subsequently displayed to so much advantage, and which 
peculiarly fitted him to be a chosen vessel to the Gentiles. 
After his education had been completed at Tarsus he re- 
moved to Jerusalem, where he became the pupil of Gama- 
liel. The Jewish Doctors were divided at that time into 
two sects— the Sadducees and the Pharisees. The former 
were cold and heartless moralists, the latter legal formal- 
ists* Gamaliel was a leading Pharisee, and the cousin of 
* Antony and Cleopatra, Act II., Scene 2. 

G 



9o A HAND-BOOK OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 

Nicodemus (John, iii. 1 ; vii. 50 ; xix. 39). According to 
tradition Simeon, who blessed the infant Jesus in the tem- 
ple (Luke, ii. 5), the son of the Great Rabbin Hillel, was 
the father of Gamaliel. Paul could therefore claim to 
have been " taught according to the perfect manner of the 
law of the fathers," without fear of contradiction, and de- 
mand the sympathies of the sect of the Pharisees. During 
his residence at Jerusalem he became a zealous exponent 
of the law, and an efficient instrument in the hands of the 
Chief-Priest for the persecution of the hated Nazarenes. 
As every male was obliged by the law to present himself 
three times in the year before the Lord — in the feast of un- 
leavened bread (the Passover), and in the feast of weeks 
(Pentecost), and in the feast of tabernacles (Deut., xvi. 16) 
— it would seem reasonable to infer that Paul must have 
seen the Lord Jesus at one of those feasts. Jarvis is con- 
fident of it, and asserts that Paul recognized Jesus when 
He appeared to him in the w r ay to Damascus. Alford, 
however, is of opinion that Paul then saw the Lord for 
the first time. That he did see Him is evident from 
1 Cor., ix. 1 ; but whether he saw Him in the flesh or 
only in visions is uncertain. 

The first allusion made to Paul in the New Testament 
is contained in Acts, vii. 58, where it is said that the wit- 
nesses to the death of Stephen laid down their clothes at 
the feet of a young man whose name was Saul. His sub- 
sequent career, to the year 53, is already familiar to the 
reader from the narrative contained in the Acts. But as 
it is almost certain that the Apostle's death did not take 
place until 68, four or five years more remain to be ac- 



A HAND-BOOK OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 99 

counted for. Davidson makes but one imprisonment, 
which only terminated with the life of St. Paul. Others 
maintain, and with strong reason, two, with an interven- 
ing period in which the Apostle traveled in various quar- 
ters. From Phil., i. 27 ; ii. 24, and Philem., 22, written 
prior to the year 63, or in the early part of that year, it 
may be confidently assumed that St. Paul expected a 
speedy release "from the soldier that kept him/' and in- 
tended in the event thereof to revisit the brethren in ev- 
ery city where he had preached the Word, and see how 
they were. That liberation probably took place in the 
spring of 63, at the end of the two years referred to in the 
conclusion of the Acts. Alford supposes the Apostle then 
" to have journeyed Eastward, visiting Philippi, which lay 
on the great Egnatian road to the East, passing into Asia. 
There, in accordance with his former desires and inten- 
tions, he would give Colosse, and Laodicea, and Hierapo- 
lis the benefit of his apostolic counsel, and confirm his 
brethren in the faith. And there, perhaps, as before, he 
would fix his head-quarters at Ephesus." He may not 
have spent much time there, in consequence of the recol- 
lection of events (Acts, xix.) which had previously com- 
pelled him to withdraw from that city; "but that he did 
visit Ephesus must be assumed, notwithstanding his confi- 
dent anticipation, expressed in Acts, xx. 25, that he should 
never see it again. It was not the first time (cf. 2 Cor., 
v. 4, 5, with Phil., i. 23) that such anticipations had been 
modified by the event." Supposing the Apostle not to 
have remained long at Ephesus at this time, he may have 
fulfilled his old intention (Rom., xv. 24, 28) of going to 



100 A HAND-BOOK OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 

Spain, as stated by Jerome and Theodoret, and may like- 
wise have " preached the Gospel in the Western parts 
(Briton)," and " brought salvation to the islands that lie 
in the ocean." There is no evidence of it, however, be- 
yond tradition. But, wherever he went, he returned again 
to Ephesus, where he left Timothy (1 Tim., i. 3) and pro- 
ceeded to Macedonia. Thence he went with Titus to Crete. 
Having placed the latter in charge over the Church in that 
island, he came back to Ephesus. . u We may venture," 
says Alford, " to trace out this last journey as having been 
from Crete by Miletus, Ephesus, Troas to Corinth, and 
thence to Nicopolis of Epirus, where he had determined to 
winter. Titus, iii. 12." Mr. Connybeare supposes that, 
being a leader of the Christians, he was arrested at Nicop- 
olis — a Roman colony — for supposed participation in the 
fire of 64, which was charged upon the Christians, and 
se*it to Rome for trial. Arrived thither, he was incarcer- 
ated in the Tullium, subsequently called the Mamertine — 
the only State Prison at Rome. A fearful description of 
the Tullium has been given by Sallust ; but his description 
applies only to that portion — the condemned cell — which 
was technically called the Tullium, from having been con- 
structed by Servius Tullius. The whole edifice, which 
had been greatly enlarged since the days of Servius, also 
bore the appellation of the Tullium. In some part of that 
prison St. Paul was closely confined. Onesiphorus (2 Tim., 
i. 16) was no longer there to seek him out and refresh him. 
Of his old companions in toil only Luke was with him. 
Doubtless Linus, Eubulus, Pudens, and Claudia minister- 
ed to his necessities as far as circumstances would permit. 



A HAND-BOOK OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 101 

But he wished to see his "beloved son," and, thoughtful 
to the last for the cause of his Master, he wanted " the 
parchments" (2 Tim., iv. 13) and Mark, because he was 
profitable to him for the ministry. 2 Tim., iv. 11. Thus 
situated the aged Apostle wrote his last Epistle to Timo- 
thy, urging him to use " diligence to come quickly"' (chap, 
iv.), and bring Mark. He evidently expected to live to 
see them. The result is unknown. One hearing had 
taken place ; probably Nero was absent, in Greece, at the 
time. The second terminated in his condemnation. He 
was executed late in 67 or early in 68, most likely the lat- 
ter. According to the constant voice of tradition, he es- 
caped the cross by virtue- of his Roman citizenship, and 
was put to death with the sword. Thus perished St. Paul. 
The church outside the walls of Rome, which now bears 
his name, is said to mark the spot where he suffered, and 
an old legend declares that the three fountains which gush 
forth hard by sprang originally from three drops of the 
Apostle's blood. 

Tradition represents St. Paul to have been small and 
unattractive in person. His " eyebrows were contracted 
and overhanging," and it is probable that he never recov- 
ered his sight as before he gazed upon the " light above 
the brightness of the sun" (Acts, xxvi. 13). Allusions are 
made (Acts, xiii. 9 ; xxiii. 1 ; 2 Cor., xii. 7, 9 ; Gal., iv. 
13, 15; vi. 11) to a weakness of the eyes; and that in- 
firmity, Alford thinks, may have been the " thorn in the 
flesh*' referred to in 2 Cor., xii. 7. "The scoffing Lucian 
calls him," says Jarvis, " ' The bald-browed Galilean, who 
went through the air to the third heaven' (2 Cor., xii. 



102 A HAND-BOOK OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 

2-5), and he speaks of himself as 'rude in speech' (2 Cor., 
xii. 6), and of his enemies at Corinth saying that his 
'bodily presence was weak and his speech contemptible' 
(2 Cor., x.). Consummately learned, he wanted nothing 
but a majestic exterior and a graceful and pleasing elocu- 
tion. These are qualities which the world greatly admires ; 
and perhaps for that reason they were denied him, as in- 
compatible with the designs of divine wisdom, and lest 
the 'cross of Christ should be made of none effect' 
(1 Cor., i. 17)." 

In the previous chapter it was stated that the Acts 
contained the history of the planting of the Church by the 
Apostles. The Epistles open an entirely different field: 
they record, as far as it has been recorded, the training of 
the Church. It was of course impossible for the Apostle, 
the account of whose ministry has been most largely pre- 
served, and who perhaps did more than any other to spread 
the knowledge of the Lord, to be every where. After he 
had planted a church he appointed an overseer of it, and 
charged him how to walk. Then he continued his mis- 
sionary course to other cities. Doubtless he revisited the 
brethren as often as circumstances would permit, and it 
seems that the "care of the churches" was ever on his 
mind. To those, however, whom he was prevented from 
seeing in person he addressed epistles as opportunity of- 
fered and occasion demanded, either for the purpose of re- 
sponding to letters and messages which had been addressed 
to him, or to admonish and advise, that they might be 
comforted and strengthened during his absence. But as 



A HAND-BOOK OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 103 

soon as the churches were left alone the influence of Juda- 
ism, of Greek philosophy, and of Asiatic mysticism, fos- 
tered by the great enemy of Christ, caused heresies to 
spring up, corrupting the very fountains of religious life, 
and tending to subvert the faith itself. Individual jeal- 
ousies, petty divisions, and violations of good morals fol- 
lowed of course. Thus the churches needed the sound 
mind and firm hand of their founder to guide them in the 
path which he had marked out for their feet to walk in. 
To correct such influences, to repress whatever error had 
taken a definite form, to heal divisions and promote the 
harmony and prosperity of the churches, was the object 
of St. Paul in writing his Epistles. It has been asked why 
the Apostle was not more full and exact in his training 
and instruction ; in a word, why he did not define the 
Church in every particular, and so elaborate its form and 
doctrine that neither could be open to discussion. Had an 
epitome of the faith been left by an inspired teacher of the 
Word, there can be little doubt that the rest of the New 
Testament would have passed into desuetude; and men, 
contented with a bare knowledge of the epitome, would 
have lost the beneficial influence of the Gospel as a whole ;* 
for though only four books are technically called Gospels, 
yet the whole New Testament is the Gospel. Besides, the 
Apostle had done that orally and distinctly in each case of 
the planting of a church, and he did not intend to write 
complete treatises upon faith, order, and doctrine. He did 
not intend to define every thing. He wrote with the rea- 
sonable* presumption that the main features of the Church 
* Whatelv. 



104 A HAND-BOOK OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 

were known. Certainly he had run in vain if they were 
not. He wrote to the brethren who had the church, to 
put them in mind, and to urge them to the performance of 
every duty which that possession involved. He thanked 
them for every remembrance of himself; he reproved them 
for their faults ; he warned them of the consequences of 
sin ; he admonished them in regard to the present ; he 
counseled them with respect to the future ; he comforted 
them under every affliction ; he gave them his earnest 
prayers and his blessing ; he was in all things an example 
unto them, and omitted nothing that was incident to the 
office of a faithful Apostle, an affectionate Father of the 
Church, and a true servant of the Lord. He did not, how- 
ever, write either essays or histories, but letters, and as 
such they were subject to all the exigencies and pecul- 
iarities of correspondence. "Whoever," says Wetstein, 
" Writes a history for those who are unacquainted with the 
matter should narrate every thing simply and clearly; but 
an epistle is a colloquy with an absent friend, who performs 
his part in it." Much therefore is always understood, and 
much mutual knowledge is always presumed. 

The remark of "Wetstein is true of all the epistles which 
the Apostles addressed either to individuals or to. church- 
es. Each epistle was written on a particular occasion, 
and for a specific purpose. Each writer confined himself 
to those points which he then deemed of most importance 
to enforce, and passed over or merely alluded to the rest. 
It must be remembered, also, that the Apostles always 
wrote to Christians. They preached that men should re- 
pent and turn unto the Lord, but they wrote to those who 



A HAND-BOOK OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 105 

were baptized and had thus put on Christ, and were obli- 
gated to continue in the Apostles' doctrine and fellowship. 
The Epistles are not narrative papers, but official writings 
of the Apostles, for the government, the admonition, and 
the strengthening of the churches. They must not, how- 
ever, be separated from the Gospels and Acts, for they 
often explain them, and are of equal authority, while all 
unite to herald forth to the world the salvation which is 
offered through Jesus Christ. 

St. Paul's Epistles are divided into two classes : the 
Epistles to the Churches, and the Pastoral Epistles. The 
latter were later written, and differ somewhat in style 
from the former. A late attempt has been made, on that 
account, to question their genuineness and authenticity, 
but it has proved unavailing. " They seem," says Alford, 
who has analyzed the whole question completely, " to have 
been from the earliest times known and continuously quoted 
in the Church." They are included in the Peschito, and 
all the early Fathers recognize them. "Among the Gnos- 
tic heretics" — who principally flourished in the second 
century, though Gnostic is sometimes used as a generic 
term for all Eastern heresy — " they did not, however, meet 
with such universal acceptance." But "from their time 
to the beginning of the present century the authenticity 
of the Pastoral Epistles remained unquestioned." Eich- 
horn, De Wette, and Baur may be mentioned as their 
strongest impugners. They have not in the least affected 
their authenticity, and the question now is reduced to a 
"negation of their genuineness or Pauline origin." But 
" external testimony," says Alford, after full consideration, 



106 A HAND-BOOK OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 

" is so satisfactory in favor of the genuineness of the Pas- 
toral Epistles as to suggest no doubt on the point of their 
universal reception in the earliest times. Objections on 
internal grounds are not adequate to raise a doubt of their 
genuineness in any fair-judging mind." They may, there- 
fore, be accepted as genuine and authentic, and placed upon 
the footing of the other canonical books without fear of 
refutation. Indeed, it is waste time to assail the canon 
at the present day, and the failure of every fresh attack 
shows it. 

Although St. Paul received his first education at Tar- 
sus, and was undoubtedly trained in the Greek literature 
and language, it is perfectly evident that his mother tongue 
was the Hebrew dialect of the day. His language is He- 
braistic ; much more so than might have been expected in 
one thus educated. For, even if provincial Greek had 
been spoken at Tarsus, St. Paul must have been familiar 
with the Athenian writers. But his mind was not He- 
braic ; it had received the ineffaceable impress of the Greek 
logicians. The contrast between St. John and St. Paul is 
illustrative of this. " The intelligent reader," says Alford, 
" must be carrying on an undercurrent of thought, or the 
connection in St. John will not be perceived. The Epis- 
tles of Paul, in which while external marks of Hebrew 
diction abound, there is yet an internal conformation of 
style and connection of thought more characteristic of the 
Greek mind : they are written more in periods, and ac- 
cording to dialectic form." St. Paul's style is greatly in- 
fluenced by the weight and importance of his subject. It 
is characterized by a disregard of all rhetorical trammels, 



A HAND-BOOK OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 107 

and the entire subjection of manner to matter. Hemster- 
husius observes that " the Epistles of St. Paul are free 
from oratorical art, and seem to have been written under 
an almost celestial excitement of mind." The writer is 
full of matter, and rushes into his subject with ardor. 
ITence his style is frequently involved and parenthetic, 
sometimes fraught with antithesis, and now and then in- 
tensely vehement. Longinus places Paul among the lead- 
ing orators of antiquity; and Jerome remarks that his 
" words are thunder - bolts." "Power, fullness, and 
warmth" according to Tholuck, distinguish Paul as a man, 
and characterize him as an author — a proof that the indi- 
vidual training, cast of thought, and attainments of an 
apostle were not obliterated by his office, but admirably 
adapted to the work for which he had been selected. The 
Epistles of St. Paul, says Chrysostom, " are an adamantine 
wall to the Church throughout the w r orld, and stand forth 
as a leader in the midst, casting down imaginations, and 
every high thing that exalteth itself against the knowledge 
of God, and bringing into captivity every thought to the 
obedience of Christ.*' 



CHAPTER XV. 

EPISTLE TO THE ROMANS. 

The Epistle to the Romans was written by St. Paul at 
Corinth, during the winter of the year 58, and forwarded, 
the following spring, through Phebe, a deaconess of the 
Church at Cenchrea. 

The planting of the Church at Rome has not been re- 
corded. History is singularly silent in regard to so inter- 
esting a subject. Romans, however, were' among those 
who listened to the voice of the Spirit on the day of Pen- 
. tecost ; and some of those Christians who were scattered 
abroad upon the martyrdom of Stephen, a.d. 51, may have 
gone as far as Rome. From chapter xv. 20 it must be 
gathered that the Church at Rome was not planted by an 
Apostle, and that, however early its origin, it was not the 
work of any one minister of the Gospel. " The history 
of the Roman community," says Milman, " is most remark- 
able. It grew up in silence, founded by some unknown 
teachers, probably those who were present in Jerusalem at 
the first*]Dublication of Christianity by the Apostles." With 
respect, however, to the origin of the Roman Church no- 
thing certain can be predicated. In all probability it was 
cradled among the Jewish inhabitants of Rome. Both 
Horace and Josephus allude to the existence of the latter 
in the time of Augustus, and Philo mentions that a region 



A HAND-BOOK OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 109 

beyond the Tiber was set apart to the Jews for the freer 
exercise of their religion. During the reign of Claudius 
disturbances among them reached to such an extent that 
they were expelled from the city. Christianity is thought 
by some to have been the cause of the dissensions referred 
to. But it is by no means certain. Among those ban- 
ished were Aquila and Priscilla (Acts, xviii. 2), who went 
to Corinth, and were there converted by St. Paul during 
his first visit to that city. Subsequently they accompa- 
nied the Apostle to Ephesus, where they probably re- 
mained until the edict of Claudius was repealed or had 
fallen into desuetude, when they returned to Eome. 

Although the Church at Rome* originated among the 
Jews, it soon drew many of the Gentiles within its fold — 
especially those who had removed from the East, where 
Christianity was better known, and had more adherents. 
From St. Paul's salutations it is evident that there were 
at Eome some who had been in Christ before himself, and 
others who had been converted through his agency. The 
latter undoubtedly exerted an important influence in the 
development of the Gospel among the Romans, and there- 
fore Paul could lay claim to being a " proximate founder" 
of the Roman Church. Of this Church, therefore, whose 
faith was spoken of throughout the world (chap. i. 8), 
which contained so many of his friends and companions, 
and of which tidings had been frequently conveyed to him 
in the course of his travels, "though not his own imme- 
diate offspring in the faith, Paul takes charge," says Al- 

* In regard to the Church at Rome see further in the chapter on 
the Epistle to the Hebrews. 



110 A HAND-BOOK OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 

ford, "as being the Apostle of the Gentiles. He longs to 
impart to the Roman brethren some spiritual gift (chap. i. 
11): he excuses his having written to them more boldly 
in some sort (chap. xv. 15) by the dignity of that office, in 
which as a priest he was to offer the Gentiles an accepta- 
ble and sanctified offering to God." 

It may seem singular that an Epistle to the Romans 
was not written in Latin. It is not certain, however, that 
St. Paul was acquainted with the language. It would not 
necessarily have formed part of his education, and the cir- 
cumstances of his life may not have required him to ob- 
tain a knowledge of it. He did not make his apologies 
before Felix and Festus in Latin, nor make his first ad- 
dress to the Roman Jews in that language. Yet it can 
hardly be supposed that he was ignorant of it. And even 
had he been so, he could certainly have obtained at Cor- 
inth the services of an amanuensis who could write for 
him in Latin had he deemed it necessary. Being aware, 
perhaps, that most of his Christian friends at Rome were 
either Greeks or Hellenists, and that a large portion of 
the humbler members of the Church had come from the 
East, and were therefore familiar with Greek, he doubt- 
less considered that language as best suited to the occa- 
sion. Besides, it was the language which he always wrote 
in, and therefore the most convenient ; and, if necessary, 
his Epistle could easily be translated for the benefit of the 
Italians. It need not excite surprise, then, that the Epis- 
tle to the Romans was written in Greek. 

At the time the Apostle wrote, Nero, the last Roman 
emperor in whose veins flowed the blood of Cresar, was on 



A HAND-BOOK OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. Ill 

the throne. Of his character it is unnecessary to speak. 
It is familiar to all. The Julian line had been founded 
by the greatest man of antiquity ; it now terminated with 
the worst. History fails to furnish a parallel for either. 

Eome at that period was the metropolis of the world. 
It was not then, however, the splendid city which it after- 
ward became. Augustus was in the habit of saying : " I 
found Rome of brick; I shall leave it of marble." It is 
true, he did make considerable effort to embellish the city, 
but at his death little progress in improvement in building 
had been realized. The structures were generally mean, 
and wood predominated in them even over brick. In- 
deed, owing to the mixture of materials, the city, as De 
Quincey remarks, must have presented a rather "grotesque'* 
appearance. At that time the Baths, the Triumphal Arch- 
es, and the Colosseum were not in existence.* It was not 
until after the great fire, which occurred a.d. 64, and last- 
ed nine days, destroying nearly every memorial of former 
glory, that Eome arose in marble splendor to weary the 
eye with its magnificence. 

But Eome was the metropolis of the world ; she exer- 
cised universal sway, and contained a large and varied 
population derived from every quarter of the empire. In 
the midst of this vast city the Gospel was preached, and 

* The commencement of the age of Roman luxury is generally 
dated from the year 148 B.C., when the fall of Carthage and Cor- 
inth elevated the power of the Republic to a conspicuous height. 
Yet more than fifty years afterward no marble columns had been in- 
troduced into any public buildings, and the example of employing 
them «as decorations to private houses was set by Crassus in the 
first century B.C. {Buck's Ancient Ruins.} 



112 A HAND-BOOK OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 

the Church of Christ silently grew up until its importance 
was such that the story of its faith reached the brethren 
throughout the world. The Roman Christians were no 
insignificant body. A few years later they were charged 
with having set fire to the city — a charge which would not 
have been made had they been few in numbers and of lit- 
tle estimation. Personally connected as St. Paul was with 
some of them, related also through his office as Apostle of 
the Gentiles, and feeling a deep interest in their prosperity 
and welfare, he was especially induced, upon learning their 
state, to address them an epistle. 

"The occasion of writing an epistle is one thing" says 
Alford, " the great object of the epistle itself another. The 
ill-adjusted questions between the Jewish and Gentile be- 
lievers, of which St. Paul had doubtless heard from Rome, 
may have prompted him originally to write to them : but 
when this resolve was once formed, the importance of 
.Rome as the centre of the Gentile world would naturally 
lead him to lay forth in this more than in any other Epis- 
tle the statement of the Divine dealings with regard to the 
Jew and Gentile, now one in Christ." 

With a view to settle the difficulties which had arisen 
among the brethren at Rome, and which had been called 
to the attention of the Apostle, he had determined to visit 
them, knowing that his presence would be effectual (chap- 
ter i. 10-13). Circumstances, however, prevented him 
from carrying his purpose into effect. He therefore sent 
them by letter the counsel and advice which he was unable 
to offer in person, intending, at the same time, to see them 
on his journey to Spain (chapter xv. 24). 



A HAND-BOOK OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 113 

"The contents of that letter," continues Alford, "plain- 
ly show what their difficulties were. Mixed as the Church 
was of Jew and Gentile, the relative position in God's fa- 
vor of each of these w r ould, in defect of solid and broad 
views of the universality of man's guilt and God's grace, 
furnish a subject of continual jealousy and irritation. And 
if we assume that the Gentile believers much preponder- 
ated in numbers, we shall readily infer that the religious 
scruples of th.e Jews as to times and meats would be likely 
to be with too little consideration overborne." 

" From such circumstances we may w r ell conceive that, 
under divine guidance, the present form of the Epistle was 
suggested to the Apostfe. The main security for a proper 
estimate being formed of both Jew and Gentile would be 
the possession of right and adequate convictions of the 
universality of man's guilt and God's free justifying grace. 
This accordingly it was Paul's great object to furnish; 
and on it he expends by far the greatest portion of his 
labor and space. But while so doing w r e may trace his 
continued anxiety to steer his way cautiously among the 
strong feelings and prejudices which beset the path on 
either hand. If by a vivid description of heathendom he 
might be likely to minister to the pride of the Jew, he 
forthwith turns to him and abases him before God equally 
with the others. But when this is accomplished, lest he 
should seem to have lost sight of the pre-eminence of God's 
chosen people, and to have exposed the privileges of the 
Jew to the slight of the Gentile, he enumerates those priv- 
ileges, and dwells upon the true nature of that pre-emi- 
nence. Again, when the great argument is brought to a 

H 



114 A HAND-BOOK OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 

close, in chapter viii., by the completion of the bringing 
in of life by Christ Jesus, and the absolute union in time 
and after time of every believer with Him — for fear he 
should seem amidst the glories of redemption to have for- 
gotten his own people, now as a nation rejected, he devotes 
three weighty chapters to an earnest and affectionate con- 
sideration of their case — to a deprecation of all triumph 
over them on the part of the Gentile, and a clear setting 
forth of the real mutual position of the two great classes 
of his readers. Then, after binding them all together 
again, in chapters xii. xiii., by precepts respecting Chris- 
tian life, conduct toward their civil superiors, and mutu- 
al love, he proceeds, in chapter xiv., to adjust those pe- 
culiar matters of doubt — now rendered comparatively easy 
after the settlement of the great principle involving them 
— respecting which they were divided. He recommends 
forbearance toward the weak and scrupulous, at the same 
time , classing himself among the strong, and manifestly 
implying on which side his own apostolic judgment lay. 
Having done this, he again places before them their mu- 
tual position as co-heirs of the divine promises and mercy 
(chapter xv. 1-13), and concludes the Epistle with matters 
of personal import to himself and them, and with saluta- 
tions in the Lord. And probably on re-perusing his work, 
either at the time, or, as the altered style seems to import, 
in after years at Rome, he subjoins the fervid and charac- 
teristic doxology with which it closes." 

The genuineness of the last chapter of this Epistle, and 
especially of the doxology with which it closes, has been 
questioned. St. Paul probably finished his work with the 



I 
A HAND-BOOK OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 115 

fifteenth chapter, and then laid it away until a conven- 
ient opportunity should offer for its transmission to Rome. 
Upon finding that Phebe of Cenchrea was about to re- 
move thither he added another chapter, and forwarded the 
whole by her. Perhaps the doxology, as above suggested, 
was affixed a few years later at Rome. The genuineness, 
however, of the whole chapter must be admitted by every 
candid critic. 

St. Paul's style has already been alluded to. In this 
Epistle the parenthetic feature of it is particularly promi- 
nent. " The peculiarity of the Apostle's parenthesis con- 
sists," says Alford, "in this, that owing to the fervency 
and rapidity of his composition he frequently deserts, in a 
clause apparently intended to be parenthetical, the con- 
struction of the main sentence, and instead of resuming it 
again, proceeds with the parenthesis as if it were the main 
sentence/' 

Examples of all St. Paul's characteristics . have been 
pointed out in this Epistle, especially in the fifth chapter, 
where they are said to " culminate." These peculiarities, 
joined to the abstruseness of the subject, render it by no 
means easy even to the scholar ; while the English reader, 
confused by the " lax renderings of the Anglican Version," 
finds the greatest difficulty in apprehending it. It is cer- 
tainly one of the most profound, and some regard it as the 
most profound, of the Epistles of St. Paul. In none is the 
subject treated so thoroughly and logically worked out, and 
in none is the wonderful intellectual power of the Apostle 
so fulry displayed. 

In view of this, "some critics," says Alford, "have sup- 



116 A HAND-BOOK OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 

posed that an elaborate plan of written doctrinal teach- 
ing, to supply the want of oral, was present to the mind 
of the Apostle; but," he adds, " there seems quite enough 
in the circumstances of the Boinan Church to have led 
naturally to such an Epistle" without the supposition. 
" We must not forget," he continues, " to whom he was 
writing, nor fail to allow for the greater importance natur- 
ally attaching to an Epistle which would be the cherished 
possession and exemplar of the greatest of the Gentile 
churches. It was an Epistle to all Gentiles, from the 
Apostle of the Gentiles : For I speak to you Gentiles, in- 
asmuch as I am the apostle of the Gentiles, I magnify 
mine office (chapter xi. 13). It had for its end the settle- 
ment, on the broad principles of God's truth and love, of 
the mutual relations and union in Christ of God's ancient 
people and the recently engrafted world. What wonder, 
then, if it be found to contain an exposition of man's un- 
worthiness and God's redeeming love, such as not even 
Holy Scripture itself elsewhere furnishes ?" 

To facilitate the reader in obtaining an insight into the 
argument contained in the Epistle to the Romans — a 
knowledge of which is necessary to a due comprehension 
of the theology of the New Testament— an analysis of the 
Epistle, compiled from the notes of Alford, is subjoined. 
The language employed is almost entirely Alford's, or 
abridged from his notes. 

First. The grand subject of the Epistle is, the Gospel 
the power of God tfnto salvation (chapter i. 16). Justifi- 
cation by faith is only a subordinate part of the great 
theme — only the condition necessitated by man's sinfulness 



A HAND-BOOK OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 117 

for his entering the state of salvation ; whereas St. Paul's 
argument extends beyond this, to the death unto sin, and 
life unto God, and carrying forward of the sanctifying work 
of the Spirit from its first fruits even to its completion. 

Second. The Gospel is the power of God to salvation to 
the believer, because in it God's righteousness is unfolded 
— not the righteousness of God, which is His attribute, 
but God's righteousness — the righteousness which flows 
from and is acceptable to Him. 

Third. Man having no righteousness of his own, and it 
being impossible for him to obtain any — there being none 
even in the law* — that will avail before God (Gal., ii. 1C), 
is, by the imputation of God's righteousness, declared (not 
made) righteous — i. <?., he is justified. 

Fourth. Justification is the acquittal from guilt, and 
cheerfulness of conscience, attained only through faith in 
God's grace in Christ. 

Fifth. The sanctifying work of the Spirit must follow 
upon justification, in order that that holiness may be ob- 
tained without which no man shall see God (Heb., xii. 14). 

ANALYSIS OF THE EPISTLE. 

Chap. i. 1-7. Address of the Epistle, with an announcement of 
Paul's calling to be an Apostle of the Gospel of the Son of God. 

Chap. i. 8-17. Opening of the Epistle. Paul's thankfulness for the 
faith of the Komans : remembrance of them in his prayers : 
wish to visit them: hinderances hitherto, but still earnest in- 
tention of doing so, that he may further ground them in that 
Gospel of which he is not ashamed, inasmuch as it is the power 

* Law throughout the Epistle signifies the law of Moses, except 
where it is logically indefinite, as chapter ii. 14, and there not a law, 
but law. (Afford, Rom. ii. 12.) 



118 A HAND-BOOK OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 

of God to all who believe. This leads to the announcement 
of one great subject of the Epistle (in a citation from the Scrip- 
ture) — viz., Justification by Faith. 

Chap. i. 18 ; xi. 36. The doctrinal exposition of the above truth : 
that the Gospel is the power of God unto salvation to every one 
that believeth. And herein — inasmuch as this power of God 
consists in the revelation of God's righteousness in man by faith, 
and in order to faith the first requisite is the recognition of man's 
unworthiness, and incapability to work a righteousness for him- 
self — the Apostle begins by proving that all Gentiles and Jews 
are Guilty before God as holding back the truth in unright- 
eousness. 

Chap. i. 18-32. It is proved of the Gentiles. 

Chap. ii. 1-29. It is proved of the Jews also. 

Chap. iii. 1-20. Taking into all fair account the real advantages of 
the Jews, these can not, by the testimony of Scripture itself con- 
cerning them, exempt them from this sentence of guiltiness be- 
fore God, in which all flesh are involved. 

Conclusion — Mankind, Jew and Gentile, have all broken 
God's law, and are guilty before Him : man keeps not God's 
law. By that law, then, he can not arrive at God's righteous- 
ness. Besides, the object of law is not to render righteous, but 
to bring to light sinfulness. 

Chap. iii. 21-26. Having proved that man has no righteousness of 
his own resulting from the observance of God's law, the Apostle 
resumes the declaration of chapter i. 17 — viz., that God's right- 
eousness is revealed by Christ, whose atoning death is, consist- 
ently with God's justice, sufficient for the pardon of sin to those 
who believe in Him. 

Chap. iii. 27 ; iv. 25. Jewish boasting altogether removed by this 
truth, not however by making void the law, nor by degrading 
Abraham from his pre-eminence, but by establishing the law, 
and showing that Abraham was really justified by faith, and is 
the father of the faithful. 

Chap. iv. 23-25. Application of what is said of Abraham to all be- 
lievers in Christ. Verse 25 introduces the great subject of chap- 
ters v.-viii. — viz., Death as connected with sin, and life as con- 
nected with righteousness. 

Chap. v. 1-11. The blessed' consequences of justification by faith. 

Chap. v. 12-19. The bringing in of reconciliation and life by Christ 



A HAND-BOOK OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 119 

in its analogy to the bringing in of sin and death by Adam. 
Verses 15-17, though Adam and Christ correspond as oppo- 
sites, yet there is a remarkable difference, which makes the free 
gift of grace much more eminent than the transgression and its 
consequences, and enhances the certainty of its end being ac- 
complished. Verse 15, distinction in degree of the transgres- 
sion. Verses 16, 17, distinctions in kind. Verse 18, Recapitu- 
lation : therefore, as by means of one transgression (not the 
transgression of one) it (*. e., judgment ; cf. verse 16) came upon 
all men unto condemnation, so also by means of oxe righteous 
act it came upon all men unto justification of life. 

Chap. v. 20, 21. How the law (of Moses) came in, in the divine econ- 
omy. Grace : its ultimate prevalence and reign by means of 
righteousness unto life eternal. 

Chap, vi.-viii. The moral effects of justification. 

Chap, ix.-xi. The Gospel being now established in all its fullness 
and freeness, the Apostle deals with the national (not individ- 
ual) rejection of Israel. After certain considerations, he asks : 
Has God cast them off (xi. 1-10) ? iSTo ; for a remnant shall 
be saved according to the election of grace, but the rest harden- 
ed — not, however, for the purpose of their destruction, but (xi. 
11-21) of mercy to the Gentiles; which purpose of mercy being 
fulfilled, Israel shall be brought in again to its proper place of 
blessing (xi. 25-32). He concludes with an humble admira- 
tion of the unsearchable depth of God's ways, and the riches of 
His Wisdom. 

Chap. xii. ; xv. 13. Practical Exhortations founded on the doctrines 
before stated. 

Chap. xv. 14-33. Conclusion. Personal notices and other matters. 

Chap. xvi. Additional chapter and Doxology. 

A complete exposition of the Epistle to the Romans 
would infringe upon the limits both of criticism and exe- 
gesis. The most abstruse and perplexing doctrines of 
Christianity are set forth in it: viz., God's sovereignty, 
man's free-will, predestination, election, grace, and respons- 
ibility. All are clearly affirmed. To explain them fully 
would involve a commentary, and thoroughly to under- 



120 A HAND-BOOK OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 

stand them would perhaps be to understand the mind of 
God. 

The principal argument of the Apostle, however, has 
been briefly traced out, and the general scope of the Epis- 
tle concisely stated. With a little attention it may be 
readily comprehended. But a full appreciation of trie 
Epistle to the Romans can only be attained through a 
careful study of the original — a study which will amply 
repay the lover of Revelation ; for as a composition St. 
Paul's Epistle to the Romans is not only distinguished, as 
Macknight remarks, "for sublimity and truth of senti- 
ment, for brevity and truth of expression, but above all 
for the unspeakable discoveries which it contains." 



CHAPTER XVI. 

FIRST EPISTLE TO THE CORINTHIANS. 

The Epistle to the Corinthians, usually styled the first, 
though there can hardly be a doubt that it was not the 
first, was written at Ephesus in the spring of the year 57. 

St. Paul came to Ephesus (Acts, xix. 1) in 51, and ap- 
parently sojourned there about three years. During this 
period the Apostle probably paid a short visit to Corinth.* 
In 2 Cor., xii. 14, he writes : u The third time I am ready 
to come to you ; r ' and in xiii. 1 : " The third time I am 
coming to you ;" and in ii. 1 he says : "I am determined 
for my own sake not again to come to you in grief." The 
latter evidently implies that " some previous visit had been 
in grief." " Clearly," continues Alford, " the first visit 
(Acts, xviii. 1) could not be thus described. We must, 
therefore, infer that an intermediate unrecorded visit had 
been paid by him." 

"The nature of this visit," says Alford, "may be gath- 
ered in some measure from extant hints. It was one 
made in < grief (2 Cor., ii. 1): why we might well sup- 
pose, but are not left to conjecture ; for he tells them 
(2 Cor., xiii. 2) that during it he warned them that if he 
came again he would not spare ; and in 2 Cor., xii. 21, there 

* Possibly one of the three shipwrecks referred to in 2 Cor., xi. 25 
happened either going or returning. {Alford.) 



122 A HAND-BOOK OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 

is a hint given that God on this occasion had humbled him 
among them. It was a visit unpleasant in the process and 
in the recollection : perhaps very short, and as sad as 
short : in which he seems merely to have thrown out sol- 
emn warnings of the consequences of a future visit of apos- 
tolic severity if the abuses were persisted in, and perhaps 
to have received insult from some among them on account 
of such warnings." 

After the Apostle's return to Ephesus he wrote the Co- 
rinthians a brief epistle (1 Cor., v. 9). " Its ' contents," 
says Alford, u may be in some measure surmised from the 
data furnished in our two canonical Epistles. It con- 
tained in all probability a command, which, being taken in 
too literal a sense, is explained in 1 Cor., v. 9-12 ; and an 
announcement of a plan of visiting them on his way to 
Macedonia, and again on his return from Macedonia (2 
Cor., i. 15, 16), which he changed in consequence of the 
news heard from Chloe's household (1 Cor., xvi. 5-7) ; for 
which alteration he was accused of lightness of purpose 
(2 Cor., i. 17). It further contained a command to make 
a collection for the poor saints at Jerusalem. It w r as evi- 
dently a short letter, containing perhaps little or nothing 
more than the above announcement and injunctions, given 
probably in the pithy and sententious manner so common 
with the Apostle." This letter has been lost. We will 
touch more particularly upon the subject of lost epistles in 
our chapter on Colossians. 

After sending the above letter, St. Paul made arrange- 
ments for his journey — sending Timothy and Erastus in 
advance to Macedonia (Acts, xix. 22). The former was 



A HAND-BOOK OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 123 

to proceed on to Corinth and announce his apostolic visit. 
Whether he reached his destination is unknown. Before 
the Apostle departed, however, news arrived from Corinth, 
which induced him to write another Epistle — the one now 
under consideration. The names of the bearers of it are 
not recorded. The subscriptions to the Epistles contained 
in the English Version are not coeval with the text, and, 
we may add, are considered of but little value. 

Corinth was originally one of the oldest and most mag- 
nificent of the cities of Greece. The poets sometimes 
called it Ephyre. Under both names, however, its praises 
have been celebrated by the writers of antiquity. At the 
close of the Achaian war, B.C. 146, Corinth, " the light of 
all Greece," was so thoroughly destroyed by the Consul 
Mummius,* that not a vestige of the noble city remained. 
Every thing that could be removed was transferred to 
Rome, and as "captive Corinth"f was borne along it 
might be truly said that " captive Greece introduced the 
arts into rustic Latium."J For some years only ruins 
marked the spot where the city had been. Caesar, how- 
ever, a short time before his death, commanded that the 
place should be rebuilt, and, to promote the design, estab- 
lished, B.C. 44, on the old site, a Roman colony. Under 
favorable auspices, and with great natural advantages, Cor- 
inth soon "rose from the ashes of its former ruins," says 

* The consul's appreciation of art was such that when the soldiers 
were removing the statues which adorned the city he enjoined upon 
them great care, under the penalty that if they broke any they would 
be compelled to make others in their stead. 

f Horace, Epistle, lib. ii. 1, 193. 

X Horace, Epistle, lib. ii. 1, 156. 



124 A HAND-BOOK OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 

Bishop Kip, "to expand into a splendor surpassing its 
former glory. Its conquerors, to atone for the barbarous 
destruction with which it had been visited, showered upon 
it all the honors and favors in their power, and, constitu- 
ted the capital of the Roman province of Achaia, it grew 
to be the rival of Athens in elegance and art. From its 
situation it necessarily became, too, the commercial capital 
of the East. The traveler by land who was going from 
the Peloponnesus to visit any of the cities of Northern 
Greece passed through its gates — by the port of Cen- 
chrea* it received the rich merchandise of Asia, and by 
that of Lecheum it maintained intercourse with Italy and 
Sicily — while through the Isthmian road a communication 
was opened with the North and South. Its streets, there- 
fore, were the very mart of the world, and through them 
passed that continual stream of commerce which flowed 
toward the Imperial city, bearing with it all the luxuries 
of the provinces. Although the basis of the population 
was Roman, yet others thronged in from every quarter on 
account of its admirable adaptation for mercantile pur- 
poses, and probably in no part of the empire were both 
the inhabitants and travelers so various and diversified. 
There was, as may now be seen in the commercial cities 
of the East, a perpetual confusion and mingling of all cos- 
tumes and dialects, the inhabitants of three continents 

* In view of the extensive commerce enjoyed by Corinth, it is a 
little singular that the difficulty of entering the port gave rise to the 
proverb : "It is not every man's lot to reach Corinth" (Horace, Ep., 
i. 17, 36). The city was about two and a half miles from either 
port, and, from its position, received the appellation of the * ' double 
sea'd citv." 



A HAND-BOOK OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 125 

meeting in the market-place and on the crowded wharves. 
It was a place remarkable for the excitement which per- 
vaded every class of society, and for the intensity of its 
worldliness. Every feeling which was not devoted to the 
pursuit of pleasure was absorbed in the spirit of commerce 
and the rivalry for gain. Corinth thus became the latest 
home of Grecian enterprise and glory. When refinement 
and art were growing dim in their early seats in Ionian 
Asia and Attica, they had another revival—- a brief flash- 
ing out into glorious beauty— in this splendid city of the 
Isthmus. We trace there the last gleaming footsteps of 
Hellenic art before it took its departure forever from the 
soil of Greece. But in the Apostle's day it was in its 
' high palmy state' — and at the very climax of its luxury 
and glory — its vice and heathen wickedness.* No place 
could exceed it in the splendor and magnificence of its 
public buildings — its temples, palaces, theatres, and baths. 
It was the opulence of Rome, refined and guided by Attic 
taste. Perhaps, in many respects, life was more free and 
joyous in this vivid Grecian city than even in the Impe- 
rial capital of the world. There the mighty pomp and 
opulence which were witnessed overpowered the senses, 
and threw all but the most favored few into insignificance. 
But the inhabitants of the gay city of Corinth, shining in 
her gaudy fetters, were subjected to no restraints, while 
they found within the narrow compass of her walls every 

* Corinth was renowned for the unclean worship of Aphrodite, to 
whose temple more than a thousand priestesses were attached. The 
very name became proverbial. See Shakspeare, Henry IV., Part I., 
Act II., Scene 4. 



126 A HAND-BOOK OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 

gift which pleasure could offer. They had all the brill- 
iancy of luxury without ever feeling their spirits wearied 
by its pomp. The Isthmian Games, too, celebrated once 
in five years, drew to this spot a concourse from every 
part of Greece, and added much to the celebrity of the 
city. It is from them, as a subject familiar to his read- 
ers, that St. Paul draws many of the illustrations of the 
Christian life. Here, also, arose the most sumptuous style 
of architecture of the ancient world — an order which still 
perpetuates the name of the city of its birth, and whose 
rich column, ' waving its wanton wreath,' seems to be a 
type of the characteristics of the people with whom it had 
its origin. But the beauty and wealth of Corinth proved 
its ruin. Living in a climate whose mild and enervating 
influence inclined them to enjoyment, its inhabitants yield- 
ed to its power, and in their pleasures sank to the lowest 
depths of moral degradation. Profligacy was wrought into 
the very being of the Corinthians — entwined with all their 
earliest associations, and strengthening with their growth. 
And so it continued to the end of their existence as a 
State." 

St. Paul planted the Church at Corinth during his first 
visit (Acts, xviii. 1-17); when he passed a year and a 
half there — from the autumn of 52 to the spring of 54 — 
preaching the Gospel, and received from the Lord the in- 
spiring assurance that " He had much people in that city.*' 
During the latter part of his visit the Jews made an in- 
surrection against Paul, and brought him before Gallio, 
the deputy or proconsul of Achaia, the Koman province 
of which Corinth was pa*rt — Acts, xviii. 12-17. 



A HAND-BOOK OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 127 

The Roman provinces were of two kinds : those which 
belonged to the emperor, and those which were the prop- 
erty of the Senate. The former were governed by pro- 
praetors, the latter by proconsuls. Achaia had originally 
been a Senatorial province, but was made imperial by Ti- 
berius. Subsequently Claudius restored it to the Senate. 
Under the circumstances, the accuracy of the term deputy 
or proconsul is worthy of note. 

Junius Annaeus Gallio was by birth a Spaniard. "His 
original name," says Alford, " was Marcus Annaeus Xo- 
vatus ; but having been adopted into the family of the 
rhetorician Lucius Junius Gallio, he took the above name. 
Re was the brother of the philosopher Seneca, whose char- 
acter of him is in exact accordance with what we may 
infer from the narrative in the Acts.*' Both Seneca and 
Statius testify to the extreme gentleness of his character. 
Lucan, the author of the Pharsalia, was his cousin. After 
his brother's death Gallio is supposed to have committed 
suicide. 

There is no reason for supposing that the Sosthenes re- 
ferred to in Acts, xviii. 17, is the person included in the 
address of this Epistle. The name was quite common. 

The Apostle, after his discharge by Gallio, -'tamed a 
good while'* at Corinth, and then sailed from Cenchrea, 
via Ephesus, for Cesarea, intending to keep the approach- 
ing feast of Pentecost at Jerusalem. 

; -The labors of St. Paul at Corinth seem," says Alford, 
" to have been rewarded with considerable success. His 
converts were for the most part Gentiles (1 Cor., xii. 2), 
but comprised also many Jews (Acts, xviii. 5, S) ; both, 



128 A HAND-BOOK OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 

however, though the Christian body at Corinth was nu- 
merous (Acts, xviii. 4, 8, 10), were principally from the 
poorer class (1 Cor., i. 26). To this Crispus, the ruler of 
the Synagogue (Acts, xviii. 8 ; 1 Cor., i. 14), formed an 
exception, as also Erastus, the chamberlain of the city 
(Rom., xvi. 23), and Gaius, whom the Apostle calls ' mine 
host;' and we find considerable mixture of classes of so- 
ciety in the Agapse (1 Cor., xi. 22)." 

The Agapse in the primitive Church were love-feasts, 
which were always associated with the Lord's Supper. 
The union of the two probably arose from the Eucharist 
having been instituted at the Paschal Feast. It will be 
remembered that our Saviour blessed two cups (Luke, xxii. 
17, 20), one apparently before, and the other after supper. 
The first, no doubt, appertained to the Paschal Feast, the 
second to the Eucharist, which was then instituted. In 
the Paschal Feast the third cup was called the "cup of 
blessing," and between it and the eating of the lamb the 
Christian Sacrament was instituted. The Agapce were 
maintained by mutual contributions, which were shared 
in common. During or after the feast the Eucharist was 
administered. The too gross mingling of the two proba- 
bly occasioned the non-discerning of the Lord's body, and 
called forth the rebuke of the Apostle (1 Cor., xi. 20-29). 
It may be added that in the primitive Church Daily Com- 
munion was not uncommon, and not to commune was not 
to be a Christian, 

" The method of the Apostle in preaching at Corinth is 
described by himself," says Alford (1 Cor., ii. 1). " He 
used great simplicity, declaring to them only the cross of 



A HAND-BOOK OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 120 

Christ, without any adventitious helps of rhetoric or world- 
ly wisdom. The opposition of the Jews had been to him 
a source of no ordinary anxiety [cf. Acts, xviii. 5 ; but 
when Silas and Timotheus returned he was earnestly oc- 
cupied in discoursing {not pressed in the spirit), testifying 
to the Jews that Jesus was the Christ]. The situation, 
likewise, of his Gentile converts was full of danger. Sur- 
rounded by habits of gross immorality and intellectual 
pride, they were liable to be corrupted in their conduct, or 
tempted to despise the simplicity of their first teacher. 

" Of this latter there w r as the more risk, since the Apos- 
tle had been followed by one whose teaching might make 
his appear in their eyes meagre and scanty. Apollos is 
described in Acts, xviii. 24, as a learned Hellenist of Al- 
exandria, mighty in the Scriptures, and fervent in zeal. 
And though by the honorable testimony there given, and 
1 Cor., hi. 6, to his work at Corinth, it is evident that his 
doctrine was essentially the same with that of Paul ; yet 
there is reason to think that there was difference enough 
in the outward character and expression of the two to pro- 
voke comparison to the Apostle's disadvantage, and at- 
tract the lovers of eloquence and philosophy rather to 
Apollos.* Compare 1 Cor., xvi. 12, where it appears that 
Apollos was not willing to go to the Corinthians : appar- 
ently on account of the divisions hinted at in the begin- 
ning of the Epistle, and, as Calvin remarks, the Apostle 
i excuses himself, lest they should suspect that he had been 
impeded by him. 9 

* See* chapter on the Epistle to the Hebrews for farther accounts 
of Apollos. 

I 



130 A HAND-BOOK OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 

" We discover very plain signs of an influence antago- 
nistic to the Apostle having been at work in Corinth. 
Teachers had come of Jewish extraction (2 Cor., xi. 22), 
bringing with them letters of recommendation from other 
churches (2 Cor., iii. 1), and had built on the foundation 
laid by Paul (1 Cor., iii. 10-18 ; 2 Cor., x. 13-18) a worth- 
less building, on which they prided themselves. These 
teachers gave out themselves for Apostles (2 Cor., xi. 5, 
13), rejecting the apostleship of Paul (1 Cor., ix. 2 ; 2 Cor., 
x. 7, 8) ; encouraging disobedience to his commands (2 Cor., 
x. 1, 6), and disparaging in every way his character and 
work for the Gospel (see, for the former, 2 Cor., iv. 1, 2 ; 
v. 11 : for the latter, 2 Cor., xi. 16 ; xii. 12). It is prob- 
able that these persons were excited to greater rage against 
Paul by the contents of the first Epistle ; for we find the 
plainest mention of them in the second. But their prac- 
tices had commenced before, and traces of them are evi- 
dent in chapter ix. of this Epistle. 

" The ground taken by these persons as regarded their 
Jewish position is evident from these Epistles. They did 
not, as false teachers among the Galatians, insist on cir- 
cumcision and keeping the law ; for not a word occurs on 
that question, nor a hint which can be construed as point- 
ing to it. Some think that they kept back this point in 
a church consisting principally of Gentiles, and contented 
themselves with first setting aside the authority and influ- 
ence of Paul. But I should rather believe them to have 
looked on this question as closed, and to have carried on 
more a negative than a positive warfare with the Apostle, 
upholding, as against him, the authority of the regularly 



A HAND-BOOK OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 131 

constituted Twelve, and of Peter as the apostle of the cir- 
cumcision, and impugning Paul as an interloper and inno- 
vator, and no autoptic witness of the events of the Gospel 
history: as not daring to prove his apostleship by claim- 
ing sustenance from the Christian churches, or by leading 
about a wife as the other Apostles, and the brethren of 
the Lord and Cephas. "What their positive teaching had 
been it is difficult to decide, except that, although founded 
on a recognition of Jesus the Christ, it was of an incon- 
sistent and unsubstantial kind, and such as would not 
stand in the coming day of fiery trial (1 Cor., iii. 11). 

" That some of these teachers may have described them- 
selves as peculiarly belonging to Christ, is a priori very prob- 
able. St. Paul had had no connection with our Lord while 
He lived and taught on earth. His Christian life and 
apostolic calling begun at so late a period that those who 
had seen the Lord on earth might claim a superiority over 
him. And this is all that seems to be meant by the ' I 
of Christ' (1 Cor., i. 12), especially if we compare it with 
2 Cor., x. 7, the only other passage where the expression 
is alluded to. There certainly persons are pointed out 
who boasted themselves in some peculiar connection with 
Christ which, it was presumed, Paul had not ; and were 
ignorant that the weapons of the apostolic warfare were 
not carnal, but spiritual. 

" It would also be natural that some should avow them- 
selves the followers of Paul himself and set perhaps an un- 
due value on him as God ? s appointed minister among them, 
forgetting that all ministers were but God's ministers for 
their benefit. 



132 A HAND-BOOK OF THE NEW TESTAMENT, 

" It will be seen from the foregoing remarks," adds Al- 
ford, u that I do not believe these tendencies to have de- 
veloped themselves into distinctly marked parties, either be- 
fore the writing of our Epistle or at any other time. In 
the Epistle of Clement of Rome, written some years after, 
we find the same contentious spirit blamed, but it appears 
that by that time its ground was altogether different : we 
have no traces of the Paul party, or Apollos party, or 
Cephas party, or Christ party : ecclesiastical insubordina- 
tion and ambition were then the faults of the Corinthian 
Church. 

"The object of writing this Epistle," continues Alford, 
" was twofold. The Apostle had been applied to by the 
Corinthians to advise them on matters connected with 
their practice in the relations of life (chap. vii. 1), and with 
their liberty of action as regarded meats offered to idols 
(chaps, viii.-x.) ; they had apparently also referred to him 
the question whether the women should be veiled in the 
public assemblies of the church (chap. xi. 3-16)-; and had 
laid before him some difficulties respecting the exercise of 
spiritual gifts (chaps, xii.-xiv.). He had enjoined them to 
make a collection for the poor saints at Jerusalem, and they 
had requested directions how this might best be done 
(chap. xvi. 1). 

" These inquiries would have elicited, at all events, an 
answer from St. Paul. But there were other and even 
more weighty reasons why an Epistle should be sent to 
them just now from their father in the faith. Intelligence 
had been brought him by the family of Chloe (chap. i. 1 1) 
of their contentious spirit From the same or from other 



A HAND-BOOK OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 133 

sources be had learned the occurrence among them of a 
gross case of incest, in which the delinquent was upheld in 
impunity by the Church (chap. v. 1). He had further un- 
derstood that the Christian brethren were in the habit of 
carrying their disputes before the heathen tribunals (chap, 
vi. 1). And it had been represented to him that there 
were irregularities requiring reprehension in their manner 
of celebrating the Agapo?, which indeed they had so abused 
that they could be no longer called the Supper of the Lord. 
Such were their weighty errors in practice: and among 
these it would have been hardly possible that Christian 
doctrine should remain sound. So far was this from be- 
ing the case, that some among them had even gone to the 
length of denying the Resurrection itself. Against these 
he triumphantly argues in chapter xv. 

" It has been questioned whether St. Paul had the de- 
fense of his own apostolic authority in view in this Epistle. 
The answer must certainly be in the affirmative. We can 
not read chapters iv. and ix. without perceiving this. At 
the same time, it is most probable that the hostility of the 
false teachers had not yet assumed the definite force of 
personal slander and disparagement, or not so prominently 
and notoriously as afterward. That which is the primary 
subject of the Second Epistle is but incidentally touched 
on here. But we plainly see that his authority had al- 
ready been impugned (chap. iv. 17-21), and his apostleship 
questioned (chap. ix. 1, 2)." 

The First Epistle to the Corinthians "is in its con- 
tents,'* says Howson, " the most diversified of all St. 
Paul's Epistles, and in proportion to the variety of its 



134 A HAND-BOOK OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 

topics is the depth of interest for ourselves. For by it we 
are introduced, as it were, behind the scenes of the Apos- 
tolic Church, and its minutest features are revealed to us 
under the light of daily life. We see the picture of a 
Christian congregation as it met for worship in some up- 
per chamber, such as the house of Aquila or of Gaius 
could furnish. We see that these seasons of pure devo- 
tion were not unalloyed by human vanity and excitement : 
yet, on the other hand, we behold the heathen auditor 
pierced to the heart by the inspired eloquence of the Chris- 
tian prophets, the secrets of his conscience laid bare to 
him, and himself constrained to falldown on his face and 
worship God : we hear the fervent thanksgiving echoed 
by the unanimous Amen : we see the administration of 
the Holy Communion terminating the feast of love. Again 
we become familiar with the perplexities of domestic life, 
the corrupting proximity of heathen immorality, the lin- 
gering superstition, the rash speculation, the lawless per- 
version of Christian liberty : we witness the strife of theo- 
logical factions, the party names, the sectarian animosities. 
We perceive the difficulty of the task imposed upon the 
Apostle, who must guard from so many perils, and guide 
through so many difficulties, his children in the faith, whom 
else he had begotten in vain : and we learn to appreciate 
more fully the magnitude of that laborious responsibility 
under which he describes himself as almost ready to sink, 
6 the care of all the churches/ 

"But while we rejoice that so many details of the deep- 
est historical interest have been preserved to us by this 
Epistle, let us not forget to thank God, who so inspired 



A HAND-BOOK OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 135 

His Apostle, that in his answers to questions of transitory 
interest he has laid down principles of eternal obligation. 
Let us trace with gratitude the providence of Him who 
6 out of darkness calls up light ;' by whose mercy it was 
provided that the unchastity of the Corinthians should oc- 
casion the sacred laws of moral purity to be established 
forever through the Christian world ; that their denial of 
the Eesurrection should cause those words to be recorded 
whereon reposes, as upon a rock that can not be shaken, 
our sure and certain hope of immortality.'*'' 

" In style," says Alford, " this Epistle ranks perhaps 
the foremost of all as to sublimity, and earnest and impas- 
sioned eloquence. Of the former, the description of the 
simplicity of the Gospel in chapter ii., the concluding apos- 
trophe of chapter iii., the same in chapter vi., the reminis- 
cence of the shortness of the time (chap. vii. 29-31), the 
whole argument in chapter xv., are examples unsurpassed 
in Scripture itself; and of the latter, chapter iv. 8-15, and 
the whole of chapter ix. ; while the panegyric of Lovej in 

* Clemens Komanus, perhaps the fellow-laborer of St. Paul, says, 
in his Epistle to the Corinthians : "Day and night declare to us the 
resurrection which is continually taking place. The night lies down, 
the day arises ; again the day departs, and the night comes on. Be- 
hold the fruits of the earth also ; the sower casts forth the seed, which 
falls upon the ground dry and naked, and is in time dissolved ; and 
from the dissolution the mighty power of the Lord raises it, so that 
out of one seed many arise and bring forth abundantly." Cf. 1 Cor., 
xv. 35-38. 

f The word agape, rendered in 1 Cor., xiii. " charity," and in 
Eph., i. 4 u /ore," is purely a Christian word, no example of it oc- 
curring in any heathen writer. There is no equivalent for it in En- 
glish. *Love is too warm, and esteem too cold ; while charity is a dif- 
ferent word altogether, meaning in one sense grace, and in another 



136 A HAND-BOOK OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 

chapter xiii. stands a pure and perfect gem, perhaps the 
noblest assemblage of beautiful thoughts in beautiful lan- 

alms. Esteem, however, approaches more nearly the true sense of 
agape than any other English word, though it falls short of the idea 
involved in agape. For instance : John describes our Saviour's at- 
tachment to Lazarus (chap. xi. 3) by the warm word phileo, " love," 
but His affection for Martha and Mary by the more restrained term 
agape (chap. xi. 5). Jesus himself, also, pointedly uses agape in His 
first two questions to Peter (John, xxi. 15-17). In the third ques- 
tion, however, He concedes to Peter's feelings, and employs phileo, 
the synonym for "love" — the word invariably used -by the ardent 
disciple in his answers to His Master. 

Charity, from the exalted position which St. Paul has given it 
among the Christian virtues, has frequently been perverted in its 
application, and placed in opposition to truth. But the proverb 
says: "Truth is the greatest charity;" and as charity aims, or 
should aim, at the welfare of mankind, and as the welfare of man 
is inseparably involved in their reception of and adherence to the 
truth, it follows that that which is most true must be most chari- 
table. 

Charity, likewise, has often been confounded with faith, even by 
those who profess to believe in the Christian system. Hear what 
Coleridge says on the attempt to substitute charity for faith in the 
justification of man : "To many, to myself formerly, it has appear- 
ed a mere dispute about words ; but it is by no means of so harm- 
less a character, for it tends to give a false direction to our thoughts, 
by diverting the conscience from the ruined and corrupted state in 
which we are without Christ. Sin is the disease. What is the rem- 
edy ? Charity ? Pshaw ! Charity, in the large, apostolic sense of 
the term, is health, the state to be obtained by the use of the reme- 
dy, not the sovereign balm itself — faith of grace— faith in the God- 
manhood, the cross, the mediation, the perfected righteousness of 
Jesus, to the utter rejection and abjuration of all righteousness of 
our own! Faith alone is the restorative. Faith is the source — 
charity, that is the whole Christian life, is the stream from it. It 
is quite childish to talk of faith being imperfect without charity ; as 
wisely might you say that a fire, however bright and strong, was 
imperfect without heat ; or that the sun, however cloudless, is im- 
perfect without beams. The true answer would be : It is not faith, 



A HAND-BOOK OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 137 

guage extant in this our world. About the whole Epis- 
tle there is a character of lofty and sustained solemnity* — 

but utter reprobate faithlessness." Ignatius calls the twain the be- 
ginning and end of life. The true agape, or love,' is that which ex- 
isted before the fall, and to which man is restored by redemption, 
and will hereafter be perfected in, in Christ. (See Afford, Trench's 
Synonyms and Parables of the New Testament, and Black's Messias, 
from all of which this note is compiled.) 

* With the anathema, chap. :ivi. 22, compare 2 John, 9-11. Ke- 
membering that the one proceeded from the same pen that had just 
written 1 Cor., xiii., and the other from the Apostle of love, the 
Christian will discover what apostolic charity was, and what manner 
of love St. Paul and St. John exercised toward those who willfully 
denied the Lord Jesus. 

1 Cor., xvi. 22, should be rendered : If any one love not the Lord, 
let him be accursed (anathema). The Lord is at hand (maranatha). 
Observe, maranatha, an Aremaic expression, is a sentence by itself. 
In the English Version the punctuation is erroneous. The phrase 
(cf. Rom., xiii. 12 ; Phil., iv. 5; 2 Thess., ii. 2 ; 1 Pet., iv. 7) was 
a common one, and used to stimulate the early Christians, as indeed 
it might be now, for the Lord is always " at hand." 

Among the Hebrews were two distinct kinds of vows, one denom- 
inated nedher, and the other cherem. Persons or things devoted by 
the former could be redeemed; but man, beast, or property devoted 
by the latter must be slain or destroyed. It was intended to apply 
to the persons and property of the wicked. Thus the Canaanites 
were devoted, and there was no possibility of redemption. Anathe- 
ma is the Greek synonym of the Hebrew cherem. The important 
difference that existed between the two vows will be thoroughly ap- 
preciated when it is borne in mind that Jephtha devoted his daugh- 
ter by the vow nedher (Judges, xi. 30-40), and that consequently 
she was redeemed. Consecrated, however, to the service of God, 
she passed her life in a state of virginity, losing thereby the honor 
of being a mother in Israel, and all chance of realizing the proudest 
hope of every Jewish maiden — that of being the mother of the Mes- 
siah. It is not wonderful, therefore, that the daughters of Israel 
went yearly to talk with (comfort) the daughter of Jephtha. (See 
Alford, and the excellent article of the Rev. Dr. A. C. Coxe in the 
Church Review, vol. iv., Art. VI.) 



138 A HAND-BOOK OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 

an absence of tortuousness of construction, and an apolo- 
getic plainness which contrast remarkably with the per- 
sonal portions of the Second Epistle. 

"No Epistle raises in us a higher estimate of the varied 
and wonderful gifts with which God was pleased to en- 
dow the man whom He selected for the Apostle of the 
Gentile world ; or shows us how large a portion of the 
Spirit, who worketh in each man severally as He will, was 
given to him for our edification. The depths of the spir- 
itual, the moral, the intellectual, the physical world, are 
open to him. He summons to his aid the analogies of 
nature. He enters minutely into the varieties of human 
infirmity and prejudice. He draws warning from the his- 
tory of the chosen people : example from the Isthmian 
foot-race. He refers an apparently trifling question of 
costume to the first great proprieties and relations of Cre- 
ation and Redemption ; He praises, reproves, exhorts, and 
teaches. Where he strikes he heals. His large heart 
holding all, where he has grieved any, he grieves likewise ; 
where it is in his power to give joy, he first overflows with 
joy himself. We form some idea from this Epistle, bet- 
ter, perhaps, than from any other, because this embraces 
the widest range of topics ; what marvelous power such a 
man must have had to persuade, to rebuke, to attract and 
fasten the affections of men." 



CHAPTER XVII. 

SECOND EPISTLE TO THE CORINTHIANS. 

After St. Paul had dispatched his first Epistle to the 
Corinthians, and while he was contemplating a journey 
through Macedonia and Achaia to Jerusalem, with the in- 
tention of proceeding thence to Rome, a tumult broke out 
at Ephesus (Acts, xix. 21-41). When the disturbance 
which had been excited by Demetrius was quieted, Paul 
took leave of the Ephesians, and departed for Macedonia, 
taking the usual route through Troas. 

u In Asia," says Alford, " he had undergone some great 
peril of his life (2 Cor., i. 8, 9), which can hardly be re- 
ferred to the tumult at Ephesus, but, from the nature of 
his expressions, was probably a grievous sickness, not un- 
accompanied with deep and wearing anxiety. At Troas 
he had expected to meet Titus (2 Cor., ii. 13), with intel- 
ligence respecting the effect produced at Corinth by the 
first Epistle. In this he was disappointed (chap. ii. 13); 
but the meeting took place in Macedonia (chap. vii. 5, 6), 
where the expected tidings were announced to him (chap. 
vii. 7-16). They were for the most part favorable, but not 
altogether. All who were well disposed had been hum- 
bled by his reproofs; but evidently his adversaries had 
been further imbittered. He wished to express to them 
the comfort which the news of their submission had brought 



140 A HAND-BOOK OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 

to him, and at the same time to defend his apostolic effi- 
ciency and personal character against the impugners of 
both. Under these circumstances, and with these objects, 
he wrote a second Epistle, and sent it before *him to break 
the severity with which he contemplated having to act 
against the rebellious (chap. xiii. 10), by winning them 
over, if possible, before his arrival." 

Timothy is associated by the Apostle with himself in 
the address of the second Epistle, as Sosthenes had been 
in that of the first. The association, however, is purely 
formal. 

Timothy, therefore, was in Macedonia at the time St. 
Paul wrote. As the mission referred to in 1 Cor., iv. 17 
had probably not been abandoned, it may be inferred that 
he had returned thither from Corinth ; though that is un- 
certain, and no sufficient data can be found to determine 
the point. 

That the Epistle was written in Macedonia is all that 
can be affirmed in regard to place. 

The bearer of it is supposed to have been Titus, who 
returned to Corinth in order to complete the collection 
which he had begun in the course of his former visit (chap, 
viii. 6). 

" The matter of the Epistle divides itself," says Alford, 
" naturally into three parts : 

" 1. Chap. i. to vii. 16. Here the Apostle sets forth to 
them his apostolic walk and character, not only with re- 
gard to them, though he frequently refers to this, but in 
general. 

" 2. Chap. viii. 1 to ix. 15. He reminds them of their 



A HAND-BOOK OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 141 

duty to complete the collection for the poor saints at Je- 
rusalem. 

"3. Chap. x. 1 to xiii. 10. Polemical justification of 
apostolic dignity and efficiency against his disparagers." 

"The Apostle begins/' says Bishop Tomline, in his re- 
sume of this Epistle, " with speaking of the consolations 
which he had experienced under his sufferings, and of the 
sincerity and zeal with which he had preached the Gos- 
pel ; he explains the reason of his not having performed 
his promise of visiting the Corinthians, and assures them 
that the delay had proceeded not from levity or fickleness, 
as perhaps his enemies had represented, but from tender- 
ness toward his converts at Corinth, to give them time to 
reform, and that there might be no occasion for treating 
them with severity when he saw them; he notices the 
case of the incestuous person, and, on account of his re- 
pentance, desires that he may be forgiven, and restored to 
communion with the Church ; he mentions the success 
with w r hich he had preached ; he enlarges upon the im- 
portance of the ministerial office, the zeal and faithfulness 
with which he had discharged his duty, and the excellence 
of the Gospel doctrines ; he cautions them against connec- 
tions with unbelievers; he expresses great regard for the 
Corinthians; declares that he had felt much anxiety and 
concern on account of the irregularities which had pre- 
vailed among them, and that he had rejoiced very much 
on being informed of their penitence and amendment ; and 
he exhorts them to contribute liberally to the relief of their 
poor brethren in Judea. In the latter part of the Epistle 
he again vindicates his character as an Apostle, and enu- 



142 A HAND-BOOK OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 

merates the various species of distress and persecutions 
which he had undergone in the cause of Christianity. He 
concludes with general exhortations, and the well-known 
benediction in the name of the Father, the Son, and the 
Holy Ghost." 

"In no other Epistle," says Alford, "are matter and 
style so various^ and so rapidly shifting from one character 
to another. Consolation and rebuke, gentleness and se- 
verity, earnestness and irony, succeed one another at very 
short intervals, and without notice." 

Meyer remarks : " The excitement and interchange of 
the affections, and probably also the haste under which 
Paul wrote this Epistle, certainly render the expressions 
often obscure and the constructions difficult; but serve 
only to exalt our admiration of the great oratorical deli- 
cacy, art, and power with which this outpouring of Paul's 
spirit, especially interesting as a self-defensive . apology, 
flows and streams onward, till at length, in the sequel, its 
billows completely overflow the opposition of the adversa- 
ries." 

Erasmus writes: "Such is his subtlety, that you can 
hardly believe that you are reading the same man. Now 
he gushes forth like the waters of a limpid fountain ; now 
he rolls along with the crash of a mighty torrent, carry- 
ing every thing away in its course ; now he glides quietly 
onward, and spreads out into a placid lake. Again he 
hides himself, and suddenly bursts forth in a different place, 
and when he appears, with wonderful windings he inclines 
to the right hand and to the left, sometimes overflowing 
his banks and again returning to his channel." 



A HAND-BOOK OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 143 

Such, indeed, are the authority and force with which he 
speaks, the copiousness and sweetness with which he ex- 
presses himself, that nothing can be taken away and no- 
thing can be added. 

After the Apostle had forwarded the second Epistle, he 
went over " those parts," and then proceeded to Greece 
(Acts, xx. 2). The phrase "those parts" doubtless in- 
cludes Illyricuni, where he says (Rom., xv. 19) that he 
preached the Gospel. No particulars of the Apostle's min- 
istry in that country have been recorded. It could only 
have occurred, however, at the time referred to above. II- 
lyricum is probably identical With Dalmatia, where Titus 
subsequently went (2 Tim., iv. 12). • 

The Apostle passed the winter at Corinth, and in the 
ensuing spring, a.d. 58, purposed to embark for Syria ; but 
the Jews having laid wait to do him some injury, he re- 
turned to Macedonia by land. After passing Easter at 
Philippi, he sailed for Troas, and thence proceeded to Je- 
rusalem. 

During the interval that occurred between St. Paul's 
first and second imprisonments at Rome the Apostle re- 
visited Corinth — once probably on his way from Macedo- 
nia to Crete, and again for the last time on his route from 
Ephesus to Nicopolis and Rome (Titus, iii. 12 ; 2 Tim., iv. 
20). The remark contained in the latter verse is the latest 
allusion to Corinth found in the New Testament. 



CHAPTER XVIII. 

EPISTLE TO THE GALATIANS. 

Both the time when and the place where this Epistle 
was written are moot-points. Connybeare and Howson, 
from its resemblance to the Epistle to the Romans, infer 
that it was written at Corinth during the winter of 57-8. 
Alford, Neander, Olshausen, and others maintain that St. 
Paul wrote the Epistle to the Galatians at Ephesus not 
very long after his return from the " upper country"' (cf. 
Acts, xviii. 23, with xix. 1), a.d. 54-'o. When the ex- 
pression, "I marvel that ye are so soon removed from him 
that called you into the grace of Christ unto another gos- 
pel" (chapter i. 6), is considered, showing that much time 
had not elapsed since the Apostle departed from Galatia, 
and that information in regard to the state of the Church 
there had reached him, it must be acknowledged that there 
exists a very strong probability in favor of the last-men- 
tioned view. Besides, it is hardly supposable that St. 
Paul, under the circumstances, would have postponed writ- 
ing for three or four years. His care of the Churches was 
not performed in so negligent a manner. Doubtless he 
wrote to every Church soon after he left it, though all his 
letters have not been preserved. It may be fairly as- 
sumed, therefore, in default of any exact data to settle the 
point, that the Epistle was written during the Apostle's 
sojourn at Ephesus, probably in 54-'o. 



A HAND-BOOK OP THE NEW TESTAMENT. 145 

Galatia, or Gallograecia, lay in the central portion of 
Asia Minor. It derived its name from the Gauls, a de- 
tachment of whom — part of the horde which invaded 
Greece under Brennus II. — crossed the Hellespont, b.c. 
241, and after a severe struggle succeeded in establishing 
themselves in the northern part of Phrygia and Cappado- 
cia. They called their new country Gallograecia. The 
inhabitants were composed of Gauls and the subjugated 
Phrygians, interspersed with Greeks and Hellenists. Orig- 
inally Galatia was divided into four tetrarchies ; but after 
the Mithridatic war the Romans consolidated them into 
one kingdom, and, as a reward for the important services 
which he had rendered, presented it to Deiotarus, the prin- 
cipal tetrarch, with the title of King of Galatia. When 
the civil wars broke out Deiotarus espoused the cause of 
Pompey, and was present at the battle of Pharsalia. He 
escaped, however, after the action, and returned to his 
kingdom. Subsequently he endeavored to conciliate Caesar 
by sending money and supplies to aid him in his war with 
Cleopatra. As soon as affairs in Egypt .were settled Caesar 
passed through Galatia to Bithynia, and at Nicaea Brutus 
made an appeal to him in behalf of the King. In consid- 
eration of his former services, Deiotarus was permitted to 
retain the throne of Galatia, though he was deprived of 
the kingdom of Armenia Minor, which had been given to 
him by Pompey. Afterwards, B.C. 45, charged with having 
conspired against the life of his benefactor, he was success- 
fully defended by Cicero in an oration delivered before the 
tribunal of Caesar at Rome. The oration is still extant, 
and evinces much skill and eloquence. Deiotarus recov- 

K 



146 A HAND-BOOK OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 

ered his throne, and retained it even after Caesar's death. 
It is worthy to be remembered that his son, who succeeded 
him, did not forget Cicero's services ; but in memory there- 
of paid a visit to the latter when pro-consul of Cilicia, and 
showed him no small kindness. 

Galatia was subsequently converted into a Roman prov- 
ince by Augustus, and belonging to the Senate, was put in 
charge of a pro-consul. It was a populous, well- watered, 
and fertile country, and possessed considerable inland trade. 
Gangra, in the northeast, was one of the principal towns 
in the time of Deiotarus, and the place where the King 
held his court. Near the northwestern border, on the 
River Sangarius, was the city of Pessinus, celebrated for 
the worship of Cybele. The temple which contained the 
image of the goddess was situated at a little distance on 
Mount Dindymus, and almost rivaled in the number of its 
votaries the shrine of Diana at Ephesus. A few leagues 
to the east lay Gordium, the scene of Alexander's exploit 
in fulfilling the oracle, and obtaining a claim to universal 
empire, by cutting the Gordian knot. Almost in the cen- 
tre was Ancyra, the most distinguished of the cities of 
Galatia. It contained a temple of Augustus, on which 
was inscribed a brief autobiography of the Emperor, copied 
from the original inscription on bronze executed at Rome. 
Unfortunately the Monumentum Ancyranum, when discov- 
ered, was partially destroyed. Ancyra — now Angora — 
enjoyed a flourishing trade, and was famed for the beauty 
of the shawls fabricated from the hair of the wild-goats 
which roamed over the hills of Galatia. During the Mid- 
dle Ages it was the scene of Bajazet's surrender to Timour 



A HAND-BOOK OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 147 

Beg, or Tamerlane. At the time St. Paul wrote it was 
probably the metropolis of the country. 

The Apostle planted the Church in Galatia, a.d. 51-% 
during his second missionary tour (Acts, xvi. 6), when, in all 
probability, he was detained there by ill-health (Gal., iv. 13). 
Subsequently, a.d. 54, he went through Galatia again, not 
founding churches, but " strengthening the disciples" (Acts, 
xviii. 23). From the upper country he returned to Ephe- 
sus, whence he wrote the Epistle under consideration. 

It can hardly be doubted that the Apostle, after his re- 
lease from his first imprisonment at Borne, in the course 
of his Eastern tour revisited the Galatians. No record of 
it, however, exists. The last allusion to Galatia is found 
in 2 Tim., iv. 10, where it is said that Crescens had de- 
parted to Galatia. It may be believed that he was sent 
there by St. Paul, or went with his approbation. Tradi- 
tion confirms this by relating that Crescens preached the 
Gospel in Galatia. 

St. Paul had planted the Church in Galatia among a 
population composed of the remains of the ancient inhab- 
itants, Greeks, Hellenists, and Jews. Probably the Greeks 
predominated, and idolatry prevailed. Soon after the 
Apostle's departure false teachers arose, not only ques- 
tioning the validity of his commission, comparing it un- 
favorably with that of the eleven, but endeavored to min- 
gle Jewish observances and legal rites with the pure and 
simple faith of the Gospel. These troubles no doubt orig- 
inated *in the interval which occurred between St. Paul's 
first and second visits. When he returned to Galatia the 
opponents of his apostolic authority probably remained 



148 A HAND-BOOK OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 

quiet; only the Judaizers contended with him. Against 
the latter he had doubtless witnessed 3 and as far as was in 
his power " strengthened the disciples" to resist their evil 
influence. Wherever there were any Jews, Judaizing was 
the bane of Christianity ; for it seemed to be almost im- 
possible to make the Jews comprehend that Christ was 
the fulfillment of the law. They continually attempted to 
combine the two. 

When St. Paul left Galatia the second time he no doubt 
thought that he had subdued the evils which threatened 
the prosperity of the Church in that region. No sooner, 
however, had he departed than they broke out afresh, and 
the Apostle had not been long in Ephesus when intelli- 
gence in regard to the Galatians, of a character both pain- 
ful and alarming, reached him. Unable to return and 
encounter his enemies in person and reprove their errors, 
in order to counteract them as far as possible he wrote an 
Epistle. It was addressed simply to the Galatians. No 
allusion was made by the Apostle to the Church in any 
particular city, nor is it known in what part of Galatia 
the Church was situated. Perhaps it was not confined to 
Ancyra or any other city, but extended throughout the 
country generally. Though that is improbable, for St. 
Paul, as far as is known, always planted the Church in 
the towns, and placed elders over it. But, whatever may 
have been the fact, it must be concluded that the infection 
was coextensive with the^ Church, and that the Apostle 
therefore simply addressed the Galatians. 

The Epistle to the Galatians, like the Pastoral Epistles, 
was written with St. Paul's "own hand" (chapter vi. 11). 



A HAND-BOOK OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 149 

" See," said he, " in how large letters I wrote unto you 
with my own hand." (Literal.) The difficulty which St. 
Paul experienced in writing, and which induced him usu- 
ally to employ an amanuensis, probably arose from an af- 
fection of the eyes (chapter iv. 15). The latter would ex- 
plain his writing in large and ungainly letters. 

" The object of the Epistle," says Alford, " was to de- 
fend his own apostolic authority, and to expose the Juda- 
istic error by which they were being deceived. Accord- 
ingly it contains two parts, the apologetic (chapters i. ii.) 
and the polemic (chapters iii. iv.). These are naturally 
followed by a hortatory conclusion (chapters v. vi.). 

" The first, or apologetic portion, contains a most valu- 
able historical resume of St. Paul's apostolic career, prov- 
ing his independence of human authority, and confirming 
as well as illustrating the narrative of the Acts by men- 
tioning the principal occasions when he held intercourse 
with the other Apostles : relating also that remarkable in- 
terview with St. Peter, so important for its own sake, and 
giving rise to his own precious testimony to Christian truth. 

" The second, or polemical portion, has much in common 
with the Epistle to the Romans. But this difference is 
observable : that whereas in that Epistle the whole subject 
is treated as belonoino- to the great argument there handled 
logically, and without reference to any special circumstan- 
ces, here all is strictly controversial, with immediate refer- 
ence tp the Judaizing teachers." 

The hortatory conclusion contains an exhortation to 
stand fast in the liberty of Christ, and to avoid circum- 
cision and the formalities of the letter. Christ is asain 



150 A HAND-BOOK OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 

represented as the all in all, and circumcision and the law 
as nothing. " Kighteousness by faith" is set forth as that 
which availeth to salvation. A contrast is drawn between 
the works of the Spirit and the works of the law, and the 
Galatians are entreated to " walk by the Spirit." Advice, 
admonitions, and warnings are added. Once more circum- 
cision is reprobated, and the cross of Christ is held up as 
the proper subject for glory. The whole then concludes 
with an earnest request to be allowed henceforth to remain 
in peace, accompanied by the usual blessing. 

"In style," says Alford, "this Epistle takes a place of 
its own among those of St. Paul. It unites the two ex- 
treme affections of his remarkable character, severity and 
tenderness — both the attributes of a man of strong and 
deep emotions. Nothing can be" more solemnly severe 
than its opening and chapter iii. 1-5 ; nothing more touch- 
ingly affectionate than some of its appeals, e.g. chapter iv. 
18-20. A half-barbarous people like the Galatians, known 
for their simplicity and impressibility, would be likely to 
listen to both of these methods of address : to be won by 
his fatherly pleading, as well as overawed by his apostolic 
rebukes and denunciations. To the peculiar diction of the 
Pastoral Epistles there are several points of similarity. 
They seem to indicate that, as those, they were written 
without the intervention of an amanuensis." 

It may be added, in conclusion, that " with the Epistle 
to the Galatians, among whom the whole Christian life 
was imperiled by Judaistic teaching, begins that great se- 
ries of unfoldings of the mystery of salvation by grace, of 
♦ which St. Paul was so eminently the minister." 



CHAPTER XIX. 

EPISTLE TO THE EPHESIANS. 

It may be assumed that this Epistle was addressed to 
the Ephesians, though, in consequence of the word " Eph- 
esus" (chap. i. 1) being of doubtful authority, the point has 
been disputed. A few writers have suggested that it might 
be the same as the Epistle to the Laodiceans, referred to 
Col., iv. 7. An encyclical character has also been attrib- 
uted to it. Neither of these opinions, however, has been 
sustained by proper evidence ; and as the Church in every 
age has been agreed that it was addressed to the " Saints 
at Ephesus," in all fairness it must be thus regarded. 

St. Paul wrote it at Rome, during the period, a.d. GI- 
GS, that he dwelt in his own hired house under charge of 
a soldier; cf. Acts, xxviii. 16, 30. From the Epistles to 
the Colossians and Philemon, which were written at the 
same time, it is apparent that Timothy, Mark, and Luke 
were with him. Epaphras had come from Asia, and Ones- 
imus was there likewise. From those Epistles it is plain 
that the Apostle was looking forward to a speedy hearing 
and discharge, when he would once more have it in his 
power to visit the brethren. Though a prisoner, he was 
free from that severe personal restraint to which he was 
afterward subjected when transferred, at the end of the 
two years (Acts, xxviii. 30), to the prastorium (palace) 



152 A HAND-BOOK OB 1 THE NEW TESTAMENT. 

(Phil., i. 13), and prevented from preaching the Gospel. 
It will not be out qjf the way, therefore, to place the date 
of the three Epistles somewhere about the end of 62 or the 
beginning of 63. Tychicus, by whom the Epistles to the 
Ephesians and Colossians were sent, was probably a Colos- 
sian, but nothing of importance is known relative to him. 

Ephesus was the chief city of Asia Minor. Pliny calls 
it " the other eye of Asia." It was situated in Lydia, at 
the mouth of the Kiver Cayster, and was famed for the 
Temple of Diana, one of the seven wonders of antiquity. 
The first temple had been burned by Erostratus, B.C. 355, 
on the night that Alexander the Great was born, under 
the idea that the crime would confer upon him immortali- 
ty. He was not mistaken ; at this day more persons have 
heard of Erostratus, the destroyer of the Temple of Diana, 
than of Ictinus, the architect of the Parthenon. A sec- 
ond temple, more splendid than the first, was erected upon 
the ruins of its predecessor. Of this the craftsmen made 
little silver models, inclosing an image of Diana, which they 
termed shrines, and sold for charms to the worshipers of 
the goddess. Hence they were alarmed at hearing that 
they were not gods which were made with hands (Acts, 
xix. 22-41), and justly feared that their craft was likely 
to be set at naught. Manifestations were said to have 
been made in some way by Diana, and it is not impossible 
that this pagan delusion may have suggested the Mariola- 
try which at a later day deformed Christianity. The Ro- 
man dogma of the Immaculate Conception, however, may 
be traced to the Koran.* The Ephesians were devoted to 

* See Gibbon, v. 108, and Gallagher's Virgin Mary, page 45. 



A HAXD-BOOK OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 153 

idolatry, sorcery, and every form of the black art. Not- 
withstanding, they listened to the voice of St. Paul, and 
became in time the first of the seven ehurehes of Asia. 
Both St. John and Timothy were buried among them. 
The tomb of the former is said to have been upon the 
side of Mount Prion. 

Ephesus was a populous commercial town, the empo- 
rium of a large inland traffic and Mediterranean trade, 
and its citizens were luxurious and opulent. It perished, 
however, amidst the general decline of the Eastern cities, 
and only the ruins of its former magnificence can now be 
seen. The place which was once the metropolitan see of 
a Christian bishop, which had heard the voice of Paul, of 
John, of Polycarp, and of Irenasus, exists in history alone, 
and possesses not a single disciple of Christ. Overlaid by 
corruption, and having but the form of godliness, it heeded 
not the warning of the Spirit (Eev., ii. 5) ; neither did it 
repent and do the first works, and its candlestick was re- 
moved, and it became a desolation. 

St. Paul first went to Ephesus in the year 54, on his 
way from Corinth to Jerusalem. His stay there was very 
brief. Being anxious to keep the approaching Pentecostal 
feast, he left Priscilla and Aquila at Ephesus, and contin- 
ued his journey via Cesarea to Jerusalem. In the autumn 
of the ensuing year, after having passed through the upper 
coasts (Acts, xix. 1), he came again to Ephesus, and re- 
mained there until Pentecost 57. He may not have spent 
all that time in Ephesus, though he probably passed the 
greater part of it there. A short visit to Corinth was 
perhaps made during that period. 



154 A HAND-BOOK OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 

When St. Paul first went to Ephesus there were no 
Christians there. He availed himself of the opportunity 
which a brief pause at that place afforded — an opportuni- 
ty which he never neglected — to go to the synagogue and 
reason with the Jews (Acts, xviii. 19). His preaching 
was not unfavorably received ; but no conversions are re- 
corded to have followed. On his return, the next year, to 
Ephesus, he found certain disciples who had been baptized 
into John's baptism — the baptism of repentance, and be- 
lief on Him which should come after, Christ Jesus (Acts, 
xix. 4) — but who had not even heard of the Holy Ghost ; 
and of the Atonement and Resurrection they were equal- 
ly ignorant. Why it was that Priscilla and Aquila — 
apparently Christians — whom Paul had left at Ephesus, 
and Apollos, to whom they had expounded the way of 
God, did not instruct them better, it is vain to inquire. 
That they were not properly baptized may have arisen 
from there having been no lawful minister there to ad- 
minister the sacrament ; but that they should not have 
known that Christ had already come, and that the Holy 
Spirit had been shed down, is unaccountable. However, 
upon being properly instructed, they were baptized, and 
received the rite of the laying on of the Apostle's hands. 
As the Church commences, formally at least, with bap- 
tism, St. Paul may be said to have been the founder of 
the church at Ephesus. To none did he devote more 
time or labor, and to none did he address so noble an 
epistle. 

The Epistle to the Ephesians was written after the one 
to the Colossians, and was probably suggested by the lat- 



A HAND-BOOK OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 155 

ter.* St. Paul had heard no unfavorable news of the 
Ephesians, and was moved by no special object to write 
to them. The same corruptions had not developed them- 
selves in the Ephesian Church as in the Colossian, though 
it may be gathered from St. Paul's directions to Timothy 
that they appeared subsequently, and occasioned no small 
injury. The Apostle therefore abstained from all contro- 
versial discussion. He had nothing to reprove or correct. 
Personally familiar with the church which had been the 
scene of so much labor, which had been trained by his own 
hand, and from which he had "kept back nothing," he 
was released from all restraint. With the recollections 
of the scene at Miletus (Acts, xx. 17-38) still fresh in his 
memory, with the speech to the elders still clear in his 
mind, warmed by the remembrance of past trials and by- 
gone triumphs, and full of the glorious Gospel of Christ 
Jesus his Lord, he gave loose to the feelings which the 
noble subject and kindred associations awakened. "He 
writes to the Ephesians," says Alford, "not as an ecclesi- 
astical father, united with others, Timotheus or the like, 
directing or cautioning them, but as their Apostle and 
prisoner in the Lord, bound for them, and set to reveal 
God's mysteries to them." His Epistle, therefore, is gen- 
eral in its nature, and though written to one church, would 
apply equally to all churches, or to the Church Universal, 
of which the church at Ephesus was but a type. " His 
object," continues Alford, " is to set forth the ground, the 
course, the aim and end, of the Church of the Faithful 

* See Alford's comparison between the two, quoted in the chapter 
on Colossians. 



15G A HAND-BOOK OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 

in Christ. In chapter i., after the introduction of the 
subject by an ascription of praise to the Father, whose 
will it was to sum up all things in Christ, and above all 
His Church, composed of Jews and Gentiles, believers in 
Christ and sealed with His Spirit. Then, with a sublime 
prayer that the eyes of their hearts might be enlightened 
to see the magnitude of the matter, he brings in the Per- 
son of Christ, exalted above all for His Church's sake, 
to which God hath given Him as Head over all things. 
Thence he passes to the fact of their own vivification in 
and with Christ, and the fellowship of the mystery which 
he, the Apostle of the Gentiles, was set to proclaim to the 
world, viz., that spiritual life by which, rooted and ground- 
ed in love, they might come to know the knowledge-pass- 
ing love of Christ, that they might be filled up to all the 
fullness of God. Thus having laid forth the ground, 
course, and scope of the Church, he ends this first part 
of his Epistle with a sublime doxology. The rest, from 
chapter iv. 1, is principally hortatory. He begins by ex- 
plaining the constitution of the Church, in unity and char- 
ity and spiritual gifts, by Christ; then he exhorts to all 
these graces which illustrate the Christian life, laying the 
foundation of each in the counsel of God toward us, and 
proposing to us their end — our salvation and God's glory. 
And this he carries into the common duties of ordinary 
life — into wedlock, and filial and servile relations. After 
this, in a magnificent peroration, he exhorts to putting on 
the Christian armor, by which the great end of the mili- 
tant church may be attained, to withstand in the evil day, 
and having accomplished all things, to stand firm. And 



A HAND-BOOK OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 157 

most aptly, when this is concluded, he sums up all with 
the catholic benediction and prayer." 

In none of the Epistles of St. Paul are the mysteries of 
the Christian faith so sublimely handled. In none are the 
unity of the Church, and the systematic and harmonious 
operation of the three Persons of the Godhead in regard 
to it, so distinctly set forth. The Church is always spok- 
en of in the singular number, as the Church, meaning the 
Church Universal, Christ's body upon earth. '• Every- 
where with him," says Alford, " the origin and foundation 
of the Church is in the will of the Father, i who workr 
eth all things after the counsel of His own will (chap. i. 11) ; 
the work and course of the Church is by the satisfaction 
of the Son, by our ' adoption ly Jesus Chrisf (chap. i. o) ; 
the scope and end of the Church is the life in the Holy 
Sfipjt, 'strengthened icith might by His Spirit in the inner 
man'' (chap. iii. 16)." 

As might be expected, when God's purposes which he 
purposed in Christ from the beginning (chap. iii. 9-11) — 
all God's purposes being in Christ, and comprehending all 
things both in heaven and on earth — are the theme of the 
inspired Apostle, whose fervid imagination 

"Rode sublime 
Upon the seraph-wings of ecstasy/' 

both the style and language are wonderful indeed. The 
magnificence of the diction keeps pace with the wondrcus- 
ness of the thoughts. "Paul, grown old," says Grotius, 
•'•and a 'prisoner, for the Gospel's sake, at Eome. shows 
them — the Ephesians — how greatly the power of the Gos- 
pel exceeds all learning : how r all the counsels of God, 



158 A HAND-BOOK OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 

from eternity, centre in it: how admirable is God's way 
in it, equaling the sublimity of the subject with words 
more sublim'e than have ever fallen from the lips of man." 
For these reasons, the Epistle to the Ephesians is the 
most difficult of all the Epistles of St. Paul. The Apostle 
approaches his subject with a fervor, and unfolds it with a 
rapidity and with an exuberance of language, that it is dif- 
ficult to follow him. Subject after subject, each depend- 
ent upon the main subject, and therefore hard to isolate ; 
thought upon thought, each of the deepest significance, 
pursue one another with such celerity that the closest 
study and attention are necessary to follow the thread of 
the writer and apprehend his meaning ; and indeed it will 
only be after frequent perusals, and the most careful con- 
sideration and untiring patience, that a full appreciation 
of this spiritual work will be attained. The untheological 
reader will find it so eloquent and admirable, so glorious 
and heavenly, that he will turn to it oftener, perhaps, than 
to any other Epistle, and will not dream of the difficulties 
which lie hidden under this beautiful surface. But the 
theological reader knows that, under this summer sea, 
" depths under depths disclose themselves," and that no- 
thing but the most unwearied and profound study, aided 
by the Spirit, will enable him to grasp the Apostle's mean- 
ing. When, however, he shall have performed his ardu- 
ous task, and obtained a victory, he will " stand rejoicing 
in his prize, deeper rooted in the faith, and with a firmer 
hold on the truth as it is in Christ." 



CHAPTER XX. 

THE EPISTLE TO THE PHILIPPIANS. 

This Epistle was written in Rome during the first im- 
prisonment of St. Paul. At the time it was written four 
communications had passed between the Apostle and the 
Philippians, and the former was in expectation (chap. ii. 
24) that he would^hortly be enabled to visit them in per- 
son. His imprisonment must therefore have been drawing 
to a close. As his release took place in the year 63, and 
as he immediately traveled Eastward by the Egnatian 
road, which led to Philippi, it is almost certain that this 
Epistle was written in that year, and that it was the last 
which the Apostle sent before leaving Rome. 

From the tone of this Epistle it is evident that a decided 
change had taken place in the circumstances of St. Paul. 
It is pervaded by sadness, and manifests a spirit of dejec- 
tion which indicates an access of trouble. The chain 
galled him, and he could sympathize with the Philippians 
in their "conflict." He was no longer living merely in 
military custody. He had been removed from his own 
house, at the expiration of the two years (Acts, xxviii. 30), 
to the praetorium — palace — (chap. i. 13), or "barrack of 
the praetorian guard/' attached to the palace of the Em- 
peror. There he was closely confined prior to his trial, 
which was near at hand. He was not debarred from see- 



160 A HAND-BOOK OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 



I 



ing the brethren, and he was permitted to write ; but he 
was not allowed to preach the Gospel : that duty was per- 
formed for him by others. This alteration in St. Paul's 
position may be thus accounted for. 

Nero, after his marriage with Poppsea, the death of Bur- 
rhus, and the fall of Seneca, soon began to exhibit signs of 
that wickedness of character which was subsequently de- 
veloped to so frightful an extent. These events occurred 
in the year 63. The Empress and her satellite, Tigellinus, 
the successor of Burrhus, hearing that Paul was the lead- 
er of the Christians, doubtless stirred up the Emperor to 
bring him to trial, hoping in that way to get rid of him. 
Paul, knowing that he had done nothing worthy of bonds, 
and strong through Him who strengtheneth, did not object 
to a trial. In all probability he courted it. But he deep- 
ly felt the increased rigor with which he was treated, and 
especially the prohibition against preaching the Gospel. 
Indeed, his distress of mind was such that he was indiffer- 
ent to life (chap. i. 23); and in this state he wrote the 
Epistle under consideration. 

Philippi was the first city of Macedonia Prima to which 
St. Paul went in answer to the call, "Come over and 
help us." — Acts, xvi. 9, 12. It is called in the Acts the 
chief city, bat the translation is incorrect. Both Amphip- 
olis and Thessalonica ranked it in that sense* Neapolis 
being in Thrace, Philippi was simply the first city in that 
division of Macedonia which St. Paul reached. It was a 
Eoman colony, and a frontier post of the empire. The 
colonies were really an extension of Rome itself, for the 
colonists were enrolled, and had the right of voting in the 



A HAND-BOOK OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 161 

comitia. They were also entitled to elect their own mag- 
istrates, though they were under the Roman law. The 
language of Rome was likewise preserved among them as 
much as possible. Where the jus Italicum prevailed they 
were free from tribute. Philippi had received the privi- 
lege of a colony from Augustus in memory of the victory 
obtained by himself and Anthony over the combined forces 
of Brutus and Cassius. It was, therefore, not without ce- 
lebrity. Besides, a garrison was always maintained in it 
to watch and repel, if necessary, any movements of the 
Thracians which might be hostile to the peace of the em- 
pire. Communications between it and Rome were, there- 
fore, of course frequent, and account for the Philippians 
being so w T ell acquainted with the affairs of the Apostle. 

But few Jews resided at Philippi, as is apparent from 
there having been no synagogue in the place. Lydia, at 
whose house Paul lodged, and where the converts natu- 
rally collected^ was probably a proselyte. The Church, 
therefore, at Philippi consisted almost entirely of Gentiles. 
There was some disposition, however, to mingle Judaism 
with the true faith. The third chapter of the Epistle 
evinces how anxious the Apostle was to eradicate the evil, 
by showing the worthlessness of self-righteousness, and 
the all-importance of that which is of faith in Christ. 
But to the Gentile character of the Church at Philippi 
must be attributed the warm personal feeling evinced to- 
ward St. Paul, and the noble efforts to repay him for the 
benefits .which he had conferred. The Philippians hav- 
ing been turned from dumb idols to the living God, and 
placed within the covenant of grace, probably felt their 

L 



162 A HAND-BOOK OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 

obligations to be much greater than Jews would regard 
them. 

The obligation of gratitude is one from which God alone 
is free. Every one, without regard to age, position, rela- 
tion, or office, is bound by this principle — a principle equal- 
ly included in the law of honesty, "Pay that thou owest ;" 
and in the command of Christ, "Whatsoever ye would 
that men should do unto you do ye even so to them." 
There can be no real integrity or elevation of character 
where there is ingratitude. The noble heart, the gener- 
ous disposition, the true Christian, is not less ready to do 
an act of kindness than prompt to acknowledge a benefit 
received. Evident as this proposition must be to every 
one, yet gratitude is among the rarest of virtues. Hence 
the conduct of the Philippian Christians awakens merited 
admiration. They were the first to -communicate even of 
their poverty (2 Cor., viii. 2 ; PhiL, iv. 12) and in their af- 
fliction, and perhaps they were the last. They did not for- 
get their benefactor, as the chief butler did Joseph, but re- 
membered him always. Even when their Apostle Epaph- 
roditus was sick, their hearts were grieved. Noble Phi- 
lippians ! No wonder that they were " dearly beloved and 
longed for." They were indeed a " crown of joy." Doubt- 
less, in the Apostle's day, as human nature is always the 
same, and selfishness a prominent characteristic of it, there 
were many who, after having received the Gospel, were 
ready to maintain that the Apostle had done nothing but 
his duty in preaching it to them. Doubtless there were 
many, as at the present time, who were willing to receive 
the Gospel without charge, or at the expense of others. 






A HAND-BOOK OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 163 

Doubtless there were many who, in every relation of life, 
were willing to obtain the benefits which attach to duty 
faithfully and affectionately performed, and ignore the ob- 
ligation involved — forgetful that duty, when so performed 
that an especial benefit ensues, demands, on Christian prin- 
ciples, the return which gratitude implies. Such persons 

"Understand not that a grateful mind, 
By owing, owes not, but still pays, at once 
Indebted and discharged." 

But the Philippians were not such. They were grateful 
to their benefactor, and therefore, generous and just — an 
example worthy of imitation in every age, and in every 
sphere of action. 

The Epistle to the Philippians is addressed to the 
Church, with the Bishops and Deacons. Presbyters and 
Deacons it should be. rendered, for the Apostle, or Bishop 
of the Church at Philippi, in the usual acceptation, was 
Epaphroditus. This is manifest from the strong mutual 
interest (chap. ii. 25-30) evinced by both. Such an inter- 
est would not have existed had Epaphroditus held an or- 
dinary position or been merely a "messenger." Some one 
is also addressed under the appellation " true yokefellow" 
(chap. iv. 8), but who is meant can not be ascertained. 
The phrase has given rise to various speculations, all of 
them quite unsatisfactory. Timothy was at Rome, and is 
joined in the Epistle. No reference, however, is made to 
Luke. This is singular, as Luke was identified with the 
Philippian Church, having passed much time in minister- 
ing to it. Indeed he was at Philippi when the Church 
was planted, and probably published his Gospel there. 



164 A HAND-BOOK OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 

The inference is that Luke was not then in Kome. Per- 
haps he left when Paul was transferred to the prsetorium. 
This would explain the sudden termination of the Acts. 

St. Paul wrote this Epistle on the occasion of the re- 
turn of Epaphroditus, who had been detained by sickness. 
His object was to thank the Philippians for their remem- 
brance of him, and to add a word in season for their edifi- 
cation in every Christian grace. One very celebrated pas- 
sage (chap. ii. 5-11) — a complete demonstration of the di- 
vinity of Christ — is embraced in this Epistle. Other pas- 
sages also, particularly in the third and fourth chapters, 
might be alluded to, but hardly any Epistle is more famil- 
iar generally. It is marked by expressions of the warm- 
est affection. The heart of the Apostle is poured out to 
his beloved Philippians. 

"In style," says Alford, "this Epistle, like all those 
where St. Paul writes with fervor, is discontinuous and 
abrupt, passing rapidly from one theme to another ; full 
of earnest exhortations, affectionate warnings, deep and 
wonderful settings-forth of his individual spiritual condi- 
tion and feelings of the state of Christians, and of the sin- 
ful world — of the loving counsels of our Father respecting 
us, and the self-sacrifice and triumph of our Redeemer." 

The following passage should be borne in mind by ev- 
ery believer : " Brethren, I count not myself to have ap- 
prehended : but this one thing I do, forgetting those things 
which are behind, and reaching forth unto those things 
which are before, I press toward the mark for the prize 
of the high calling of God in Christ Jesus" (chap. iii. 13, 
14). Let all be thus minded. 



CHAPTER XXI. 

— EPISTLE TO THE COLOSSIANS. 

The Epistle to the Colossians was written at the same 
time, and sent by the same person, as that to the Ephe- 
sians.* It is, in fact, a sister-epistle, and is in some re- 
spects almost identical with the latter. Being written to- 
gether and to neighboring Churches, however, the similar- 
ity is not strange. An Epistle from Laodicea (chap. iv. 
16) — literally of, meaning to, Laodicea — one of the seven 
Churches of Asia, is referred to as also intended, in some 
measure, for the Colossians. That Epistle has been lost. 
In all probability it resembled the sister-epistles as much 
as they do each other. Many have been unwilling to ac- 
knowledge the possibility of an epistle of St. Paul having 
been permitted to perish. Nevertheless, no other fair ex- 
planation of the matter can be given. Moreover, it is very 
unlikely that all St. Paul's epistles have been preserved. 
He must have written a great deal, much more than has 
been handed down, and that some of his writings should 
have been lost is perfectly natural. The Epistle to Phile- 
mon is only one of many similar private letters which St. 
Paul, no doubt, wrote as occasion demanded.! Why should 

* The Epistle to the Ephesians was written at Kome, a.d. 61-63, 
and sent by Tychicus. 

f See Chapter on the Epistle to Philemon, and Note. 



166 A HAND-BOOK OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 

not letters to the Churches have perished in like manner 1 
The letter alluded to in 1 Cor., v. 9 is not now in exist- 
ence, and the Epistle to Laodicea must be placed in the 
same category. But all the writings of the Apostles which 
the welfare of the Church required have been faithfully 
preserved and handed down. To doubt that would be to 
doubt the protecting care and wisdom of the Great Head 
of the Church — a doubt which requires no refutation. 

Colosse was a city of Phrygia, about half-way between 
Ephesus and Antioch of Pisidia, and near to Laodicea and 
Hierapolis. It was not a place of much importance. By 
whom the Church was planted there has not been record- 
ed. From chapter ii. 1 it may be presumed that St. Paul 
had not been at Colosse when he wrote the Epistle. 
Some have been induced by chapters i. 7 ; iv. 12, 13, to 
think that Epaphras founded the Church, not only in Co- 
losse, but in Laodicea and Hierapolis. But it is quite 
uncertain. Epaphras and Archippus — perhaps the son of 
Philemon — are both referred to as ministers, and both 
may have been concerned in it. Citizens of Colosse, 
Hierapolis, and Laodicea had probably been at Ephesus 
during St. Paul's long sojourn in the latter city, and had 
become converted to Christ. At their instance ministers 
were doubtless sent by the Apostle to plant Churches in 
those places. Thus St. Paul, admitting that he had not 
been to any of the cities in question, was acquainted with 
the leading Christians in each, and was the ultimate found- 
er of their Churches. This is corroborated by Luke, who 
says that Paul, while at Ephesus, disputed daily (this need 
not be literally taken) in the school of one Tyrannus, and 



A HAND-BOOK OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 167 

that all they that dwelt in Asia heard the word of the 
Lord Jesus, both Jews and Greeks (Acts, xix. 9, 10). De- 
metrius also maintains that Paul's influence extended far 
beyond Ephesus. The personal interest and mutual ac- 
quaintance exhibited in the Epistle to the Colossians may 
therefore be easily explained. 

Timothy, Luke, and Mark were at Home when Paul 
was writing. The latter was about to go to Asia, and 
the Colossians were requested to receive him. Commands 
in relation to Mark had previously been sent (chap. iv. 10), 
but by whom is not known. The Apostle was evidently 
anxious to remove any unfavorable impression that may 
have resulted from Mark's former conduct. At a later 
day (2 Tim. iv. 11) he directs Timothy to bring Mark 
with him to Rome, as he was " profitable to him." 

Epaphras had probably been sent to Rome to see St. 
Paul, and from him the Apostle learned the incipient cor- 
ruption which was manifesting itself among the Colos- 
sians. The Judaizing temper of the circumcision had 
mingled up fleshly ordinances and legal appointments with 
the free spirit, of the Gospel, and some had superadded a 
worship of angels and Asiatic devotions, far removed from 
the pure religion that they had originally learned. It does 
not appear that apostasy had taken place; but the seeds 
of that corruption which subsequently produced such an 
abundant harvest of false doctrine, heresy, and schism had 
taken root, and were beginning to spring up. Their de- 
velopment may be traced by the Pastoral Epistles written 
some years afterward, in which they are severely repro- 
bated. To correct these incipient heresies was the object 



168 A HAND-BOOK OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 

of the Apostle in writing to the Colossians. He therefore 
placed before them, in the most prominent position, and 
in the clearest light, Christ, as comprehending in himself 
'all things, both human and Divine — Christ, the religion 
which he preached, and which they had " learned from 
Epaphras." " He set before them," says Alford, " their 
real standing in Christ : the majesty of His Person, and 
the completeness of His Eedemption : and exhorted them 
to conformity with their risen Lord: following this out 
into all the subordinate duties and occasions of common 
life." Thus he furnished them with an antidote to the 
poison of the false teachers, and urged them to cast off 
the trammels with which the latter wished to clog their 
spiritual progress. A true appreciation of Christ, the 
Apostle well knew, would produce a life of faith. If they 
would but die with Him, they would rise with Him, and 
their life would be hid with Him in God. 
• The Epistle to the Colossians strongly resembles in 
style and language the Epistle to the Ephesians, though 
there is an air of restraint about it which the latter does 
not exhibit. This may have arisen not only from St. Paul 
having received unfavorable reports of the state of the Co- 
lossians, and being therefore compelled to reprove them, 
but from his being personally less familiar with them, hav- 
ing never been to their city, than he was with the Ephe- 
sians. " In writing both," says Alford, " the Apostle's 
mind was in the same general frame — full of the glories 
of the Person of Christ, and the consequent glorious priv- 
ileges of His Church, which is built on Him, and vitarly 
knit to Him. This mighty subject, as he looked with in- 



A HAND-BOOK OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 169 

dignation on the beggarly system of meats and drinks, and 
hallowed days, and angelic mediations, to which his Co- 
lossians were being drawn down, rose before him in all its 
length and breadth and height ; but as writing to them, he 
was confined to one portion of it, and to setting forth that 
one portion pointedly and controversially. He could not, 
consistently with the effect which he would produce on 
them, dive into the depths of the divine counsels in Christ 
with regard to them. At every turn, we may well con- 
ceive he w r ould fain have gone out into those wonderful 
prayers and revelations which would have been so abund- 
ant if he had had free scope ; but at every turn the Spirit 
bound him to a low r er region, and wrould not let him lose 
sight of the ' Beware lest' (chap. ii. 8) which forms the 
ground-tone of this Colossian Epistle. Only in the set- 
ting forth of the majesty of Christ's Person, so essential to 
his present aim, does he know no limits to the sublimity 
of his flight. When he approaches those who are Christ's, 
the urgency of their conservation, and the duty of marking 
the contrast to their deceivers, cramps and confines him 
for the time. 

"But the Spirit which thus bound him to his special 
work while writing to the Colossians would not let His 
divine promptings be in vain. While he is laboring with 
the great subject, and unable to the Colossians to express 
all he w T ould, his thoughts are turned to another church, 
lying also in the line which Tychicus and Onesimus would 
take : a church which he had himself built up stone by 
stone ; to W T hich his affection went largely forth ; where, 
if the same baneful influences were making themselves felt, 



170 A HAND-BOOK OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 

it was but slightly, or not so as to call for special and ex- 
clusive treatment. He might pour forth to his Ephesians 
all the fullness of the Spirit's revelations and promptings 
on the great subject of the Spouse and Body of Christ. 
To them, without being bound to narrow his energies ever- 
more into one line of controversial direction, he might lay 
forth, as he should be empowered, their foundation in the 
counsel of the Father, their course in the satisfaction of 
the Son, their perfection in the work of the Spirit. His 
Epistle to the Colossians is his caution, his argument, his 
protest — is, so to speak, his working-day toil, his direct 
pastoral labor; and the other is the flower and bloom of 
his moments, during those same days of devotion and rest, 
when he wrought not so much in the Spirit as the Spirit 
wrought in him. So that while we have in the Colossians 
system defined, language elaborated, antithesis, and logical 
power on the surface, we have in the Ephesians the free 
outflowing of the earnest spirit, to the mere surface-reader 
without system, but to him that delves down into it in 
system far deeper, and more recondite, and more exquisite 
— the greatest and most heavenly work of one whose very 
imagination was peopled with the things in heaven, and 
even his fancy rapt into the visions of God." 

The Epistle concludes with several greetings, not only 
to the Colossians, but to Laodiceans. Luke is called the 
" beloved physician," and others are warmly commended. 
Colosse, Laodicea, and Hierapolis were visited by a severe 
earthquake some time in the year 62. St. Paul could 
not have known of it when he wrote ; but Tychicus, on 
reaching his destination, may have found only the ruins 



A HAND-BOOK OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 171 

of those places. All, however, is conjecture. It is not 
likely that they were utterly destroyed, and probably they 
were to some extent rebuilt. 

The Apostle closes with the autographic salutation (1 
Cor., xvi. 21 ; 2 Thess., iii. 17) and a touching allusion 
to the bonds which trembled on his hands as he wrote. 
After his discharge he went to the East, and, as has been 
before said, probably visited Colosse and the other churches 
of Asia. 



CHAPTER XXII. 

FIRST EPISTLE TO THE THESSALONIANS. 

St. Paul having been virtually expelled from Philippi 
(Acts, xvi. xvii.), passed through Amphipolis and Apollo- 
nia, and came to Thessalonica, where he availed himself 
of the Jewish synagogue to preach the Gospel. 

Thessalonica was the chief town of Macedonia, and a 
free city. Its old name was Therme. Cassander, how- 
ever, changed it, in compliment to his wife, the daughter 
of Philip, to Thessalonica. Situated at the head of the 
Thermaic Gulf, which still retained the old appellation, 
and on the great Egnatian way which led from Dyrrha- 
ohium, it commanded an extensive trade, and contended 
even with Ephesus and Corinth for priority. Under the 
Roman sway it enjoyed the greatest prosperity, and main- 
tained a pre-eminent position in that part of the empire 
until overshadowed by Constantinople. During the Mid- 
dle Ages it continued to flourish, and even now its suc- 
cessor, Saloniki, with a population of 70,000, is only sec- 
ond to Stamboul among the cities of European Turkey. 

St. Paul, on arriving at Thessalonica (Acts, xvii.), ad- 
dressed himself, in his usual manner, first to the Jews, of 
whom there were many, as the existence of a synagogue 
indicates. His efforts were attended with success, and re- 
sulted in winning over not only some of the Jews, but not 



A HAND-BOOK OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 173 

a few of the Gentiles likewise. However, with their usual 
perverseness, the unbelieving Jews excited a tumult, and 
invoked the aid of the authorities to facilitate them in per- 
secuting the messengers of Christ and suppressing his 
Gospel. Anxious, therefore, for their safety, the brethren 
sent away Paul and Silas by night to Berea. The latter 
was a prophet (Acts, xv. 32), and in the Epistles of Paul 
is called Silvanus. "Tradition," says Afford, " distin- 
guishes Silas from Silvanus, making the former Bishop of 
Corinth, the latter of Thessalonica.*' Some have thought 
that Silvanus and Lucanus, silva and Incus, being synonyms, 
were the same ; but the evidence is insufficient. 

At Berea the preaching was resumed with entire suc- 
cess. But when the Thessalonian Jews heard that the 
Gospel had been embraced in Berea, they went thither and 
stirred up the people, so that it was no longer a safe abode 
for Paul. The Apostle was therefore sent, probably by 
sea, to Athens, while Silas, who had been joined by Tim- 
othy, remained at Berea. Leaving Paul at Athens, the 
Berean brethren who had conducted him returned, with a 
commandment to Silas and Timothy to follow with all 
speed. Subsequently they rejoined the Apostle (Acts, 
xviii. 5) at Corinth, Timothy meanwhile having paid a 
visit to Thessalonica (chap. iii. 6), and being thus enabled 
to give an account of the state of the Church in that 
place. 

St. Paul arrived in Corinth some time in the autumn of 
the year 52. Soon after, Silas and Timothy having come, 
he wrote the First Epistle to the Thessalonians. In point 
of time, therefore, it is the first of his Epistles, and, as 



174 A HAND-BOOK OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 

might naturally be expected, it is the simplest in style, and 
least doctrinal in matter. The Church at Thessalonica, 
though it contained some Jews, was principally composed 
of Gentiles (chap. i. 9 ; Acts, xvii. 4), and therefore, in all 
probability, exhibited hardly any tendency to corruption 
of the faith. Besides, it was a new Church. St. Paul 
had passed but little time at Thessalonica, and had only 
planted the Church there, and preached generally " re- 
pentance toward God and faith in our Lord Jesus Christ," 
when he was compelled to withdraw. Though the Apos- 
tle was prevented from making an extended teaching, he 
gave the Thessalonians the Church and the faith. Had 
circumstances permitted, he would have further aroused 
and warmed them by his voice and example. And in 
view of this he intended (chap. ii. 18) to return, and "per- 
fect that which was lacking" (chap. iii. 10), but was hin- 
dered from carrying out his purpose. Having received, 
however, favorable news of the Thessalonians from Tim- 
othy, he wrote them an epistle. 

Greeting them in the name of Silvanus, of Timothy, 
and of himself, he assures them of his continual remem- 
brance. He reminds them of their acceptance of the Gos- 
pel, the circumstances which attended its delivery, and 
the results which ensued. He recalls to their remem- 
brance his own life and ministry among them ; the opposi- 
tion which. he had met with from the Jews ; and compares 
the conduct of the latter toward himself with that which 
the Lord Jesus had experienced in Judea. His confidence 
in the Thessalonians is undiminished; his desire to see 
them is great ; they are his " crown of rejoicing, his glory 



A HAND-BOOK OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 175 

and joy." Continuing the earnest expressions of his love, 
and of his gratification in having received such good news 
of them from Timothy, he declares the daily intercessions 
which he makes to God in their behalf. He prays fervent- 
ly that he might be permitted to see "their face again," 
entreating God to " direct his way," and the Lord to make 
them " abound in love," and to "establish them unblama- 
ble in holiness before God, even the Father, at the coming 
of the Lord Jesus." Then, resuming the thread of his sub- 
ject, he refers to his former instructions in regard to their 
daily walk and life, and adds further counsels and admo- 
nitions. Having learned, says Alford, that "they were 
beginning to be restless in expectation of the day of the 
Lord (chap. iv. 11); neglectful of that pure, and sober, 
and temperate walk, which is alone the fit preparation for 
that day (chap. iv. 3 ; v. 1-9) ; distressed about the state 
of the dead in Christ, who, they supposed, had lost the pre- 
vious opportunity of standing before Him at His coming 
(chap. iv. 13); he writes to them, to build up their faith 
and love, and to correct these misapprehensions." In a 
noble passage (chap, iv.^ 13-18) he explains to them the 
resurrection and the coming of the Lord. And as the time 
of that great event had not been revealed, and "the day 
of the Lord cometh as a thief in the night" (chap. v. 2), he 
urges them to watch and be prepared, lest they be taken 
unawares. He animates them by assurances of his con- 
fidence in their being " children of light," and comforts 
them with renewed declarations of God's power and good- 
ness in purposing their salvation through the Lord Jesus 
Christ. Again he admonishes them with respect to their 



I 

176 A HAND-BOOK OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 

duties, especially reminding them of their obligations to 
those who labored among them, and were over them in 
the Lord* (chap. v. 12). He exhorts them also concern- 
ing their conduct toward each other, and adds many ad- 
mirable precepts for their guidance and instruction in 
righteousness. Finally he greets all the brethren ; charges 
that his Epistle be publicly read ; and closes with his cus- 
tomary benediction. 

There is one passage in this Epistle, which, from having 
been misapprehended by the translators of the Anglican 
version, and erroneously rendered, fails to convey any sat- 
isfactory meaning to the English reader. The whole pas- 
sage — chapter iv. 3-6 inclusive — should be translated thus : 
"For this is the will of God, your sanctification, that you 
should abstain from fornication, that each of you should 
know how to acquire his own wife, in sanctification and 
honor, not in the passion of lust, as the Gentiles, who 
know not God, that he should not set at naught or over- 
reach his brother in the matter, because God is the avenger 
of all these things, as we before told you and constantly 
testified."! 

It is worthy of observation that the Apostle in this 
Epistle clearly sets forth (chap. v. 2 3) % the threefold con- 
stitution of man : " The very God of peace sanctify you 
wholly, and keep entire your spirit and soul and body 
blameless unto the coming of the Lord Jesus Christ*" 

* Of course the Apostle refers to the Presbyters whom he had or- 
dained and placed over the Thessalonians. How different from the 
present day, when, too often, the people are over the pastor ! 

t See Alford's fine note, from which the above is taken. 

% See Alford, also Trench's New Testament Synonyms. 



A HAND-BOOK OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 177 

The spirit is that immortal part which differences man 
from the lower animals. The soul is common to both, 
and includes the passions. Compare 1 Cor., ii. 14, "The 
natural" (soulish, that is, under the control of the animal 
soul) " receiveth not the things of the Spirit of God,*' and 
Jude 19, " Sensual*' (soulish) " not having the Spirit." 
In man the soul unquestionably has received a higher de- 
velopment than in the brute, from having been connected 
with a higher physical organization, and from having been 
associated with the spirit, and thus brought into contact 
with the Holy Spirit. The body is of course common to 
man and the various animals. But in man it is the linage 
of the human body of Christ. It must be remembered, 
however, that man is one : spirit and soul and body com- 
bine to complete the man "entire," a whole. 

"In style," says Alford, "this Epistle is thoroughly 
Pauline. As compared with other Epistles, it is written 
in a quiet and unimpassioned style, not being occasioned 
by any grievous errors of doctrine or defects in practice, 
but written to encourage and gently to admonish those 
who were, on the whole, proceeding favorably in the Chris- 
tian life." 

M 



CHAPTER XXIII. 

SECOND EPISTLE TO THE THESS^LONIANS. 

The Second Epistle to the Thessalonians was written 
from Corinth some time in the course of the year 53. 

St. Paul had not received any reply to his first Epistle, 
nor had he learned what effect it produced. Information, 
however, had reached him relative to the state of the 
Church at Thessalonica, from which it was apparent that 
the old misapprehension in regard to the coming of the 
Lord was still in existence, and producing bad effects. 
Many, believing that the end of the age was approaching, 
abandoned their usual avocations, and displayed an indif- 
ference to the affairs of this life which was highly preju- 
dicial to the general welfare, and utterly inconsistent with 
the true spirit of the Gospel. Others, excited by the same 
cause, and perhaps by a secret disbelief in the Resurrec- 
tion also, began to walk disorderly and to addict them- 
selves to evil practices. It must be inferred, from the 
state of affairs at Thessalonica, that the minds of the 
brethren had been disturbed by a perversion of St. Paul's 
preaching — which always was, " the Lord is at hand" — 
and also by pretended letters assuming to have emanated 
from the Apostle. Besides, enemies of the faith had very 
likely crept in, and under pretense of teaching, endeavored 
to overthrow the Church. To correct the misapprehen- 



A HAND-BOOK OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 179 

sions rife among the Thessalonian brethren, St. Paul had 
addressed to them his first Epistle, and now, if possible, to 
remove the difficulty altogether, and to set their minds 
entirely at ease he writes a second. 

After the address and salutation, which are the same 
as in the first Epistle, the Apostle expresses his satisfac- 
tion at the increase of their faith and love, and endurance 
of persecution, and comforts them under their tribulations 
by the assurance of God's justice, which will be fully mani- 
fested when Christ shall come with the angels of His pow- 
er and great glory to condemn the guilty and to reward 
them that believe. Further, he prays that they may be 
counted worthy, and that the Lord may be glorified in 
them. Then he beseeches them to be firm and tranquil, 
and not to be deceived in any manner. He explains the 
falling away that must precede the coming of the Lord, 
and describes the son of perdition, and all the circumstan- 
ces which would accompany his manifestation, exaltation, 
and destruction. Affirming that some would go astray 
and perish, he exhorts them again to stand fast, to remem- 
ber and observe his instructions of every sort, and prays 
the Lord to comfort and stablish them in every good word 
and work. In conclusion, he asks their prayers in his own 
behalf, and assures them once more of his continued confi- 
dence. He intercedes with God again for them, and ad- 
monishes and counsels them in regard to their individual 
deportment and their conduct toward one another ; add- 
ing various precepts for their guidance. Finally, he sa- 
lutes them with his " own hand" (cf. Rom., xvi. 22 ; 1 Cor., 
xvi. 21 ; Col., iv. 18) to certify them of the authenticity 



180 A HAND-BOOK OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 

of the Epistle (cf. chap. ii. 2), and blesses them in the 
usual manner. 

The prophetic portion of this Epistle (chap. ii. 1-10) 
has ever awakened the greatest interest. Many, and often 
curious, are the interpretations of it which have been given 
by the Fathers of the Church, and by writers from their 
day to the present time. A synopsis of them would oc- 
cupy much space, and avail nothing beyond the gratifica- 
tion of curiosity. It is sufficient to say that they vary ac- 
cording to the stand-point of the writers and the period 
in which they lived, evincing how differently the same 
thing will present itself to different minds, all perhaps eager 
for the truth and striving to attain it. None, however, 
is entirely satisfactory, and none has met with general ac- 
ceptance. Probably this will always be the case. 

Hooker remarks: " I hold it for a most infallible rule in 
expositions of sacred Scripture, that where a literal con- 
struction will stand, the farthest from the letter is com- 
monly the worst." In accordance with the above rule of 
exegesis, what would be a "literal construction" of St. 
Paul's words? Simply to take them as they are, or, in 
general terms, to see in them a 'description of that contest 
between Christ and Satan (the Antichrist) which has been 
going on since the rebellious spirit 

" defied th' Omnipotent to arms," 

and will continue to go on until the Lord return triumph- 
ant in glory. Had Hillel, the grandfather of Gamaliel, 
and the greatest of all the Kabbins who preceded the days 
of John the Baptist, begun at Moses and the prophets, and 



A HAND-BOOK OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 181 

expounded in all the Scriptures the things concerning 
Christ, elaborating and explaining all things precisely in 
accordance with their subsequent fulfillment, who would 
have believed him? What Eabbi would have admitted 
for a moment the possibility of the prophecies of David 
and Isaiah ever being literally fulfilled ! May not the 
words of the inspired Apostle to the Thessalonians here- 
after receive as complete and as literal a realization as 
those of the Hebrew Psalmist and Prophet? Abandon 
then fanciful interpretations and believe God, who will 
bring his word to pass. 

The style of the second Epistle accords generally with 
that of the first. The prophetic portion may be compared 
with similar passages in other epistles, and will be found 
to harmonize with them in energy of diction and elevation 
of thought and manner. The whole Epistle is written in 
the earnest and affectionate strain which marks the writ- 
ings of St. Paul, and shows that the Apostle was not back- 
ward in sustaining by his example the admonition which 
all will do well to bear in mind : K Be not weary in well 
doing." 



CHAPTER XXIV. 

FIRST EPISTLE TO TIMOTHY. 

St. Paul's First Epistle to Timothy is the first of the 
Pastoral Epistles. The genuineness and authenticity of 
the latter have already been considered in the chapter upon 
the Epistles of St. Paul. 

It has been stated, that the Apostle, after his release 
from his first imprisonment, a.d. 63, traveled to the East. 
His progress, during the period that intervened between 
the first and second imprisonment, can not be authoritative- 
ly traced. But as the Pastoral Epistles were probably 
written at a late date and near together, it may be as- 
sumed that St. Paul left Timothy at Ephesus, about 66 or 
67, and proceeded to Macedonia (1 Tim., i. 3). Pausing 
somewhere, perhaps in Macedonia, though that is uncer- 
tain, he sent back to Timothy his first Epistle, hoping 
shortly to follow himself (chap. iii. 14). 

Timothy was a native of Lystra — a city of Pamphylia — 
whose father was a Greek, and whose mother Eunice and 
grandmother Lois were Jewesses; cf. Acts, xvi. 1 with 
2 Tim., i. 5. As he was well reported of by the brethren, 
at Paul's second visit, he must have been converted during 
the Apostle's previous sojourn at Lystra (Acts, xiv. 6, 7, 
21). Perceiving that Timothy would be a profitable min- 
ister, Paul circumcised him, doubtless out of consideration 



A HAND-BOOK OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 183 

for the Jewish Christians who were aware of his partial 
Jewish descent, and associated him with himself in the 
missionary work in which he was engaged. The following 
chronological table is compiled from Alford : 

a.d. -45. — Timothy converted by St. Paul, during the first mission- 
ary journey, at Lystra. 

a.d. 51. — Taken to be St. Paul's companion and circumcised, dur- 
ing the second missionary journey, Acts, xvi. 1 and reference. 
Accompanies St. Paul from that time until they reach Berea. 
— Abides with Silas at Berea, while Paul is sent by sea to Ath- 
ens, Acts, xvii. 14. — Is sent to Thessalonica, 1 Thess., iii. 6. 

a.d. 52. — With Silas joins St. Paul at Corinth, Acts, xviii. 5; 1 
Thess., iii. 6. 

Winters at Corinth with Paul, 1 Thess., i. 1 ; 2 Thess., i. 1. 
Probably returns with Paul via Ephesus, Acts, xviii. 18, 19. — 
Did he remain at Ephesus with Priscilla and Aquila, as Alford 
thinks most likely, or go on with Paul to Jerusalem ? If he 
remained, why did he not teach the Ephesians something more 
than John's baptism (Acts, xix. 3) ? 

a.d. 57. — Xext heard of at Ephesus. — Sent thence with Erastus to 
Macedonia and to Corinth, Acts, xix. 22 ; 1 Cor., iv. 17 ; xvi. 
• 10. — In Macedonia with Paul, 2 Cor., i. 1. 

a.d. 58. — At Corinth with Paul, Rom., xvi. 21. — He is among the 
number of those who, on Paul's return to Asia through Mace- 
donia, went forward from Philippi and waited for the Apostle 
and Luke at Troas, Acts, xx. 3, i. 

a.d. 63. — The next notice of him occurs in three of the Epistles of 
the first Roman imprisonment. He was at Rome (Col., i. 1 ; 
Philem., 1 ; and Phil., i. 1 ; ii. 19) ; but how he came there, 
whether with the Apostle or after him, can not be said. — Short- 
ly to be sent to Philippi, Phil., ii. 19. 

a.d. 66-67. — In charge of the church at Ephesus. — Receives first 
Epistle. 

a.d. 67. — Receives second Epistle. — Paul urges him to come to Rome 
( 'before winter," chap. iv. 21. — Paul probably put to death in 
tke winter of 68.— Did Timothy take Mark (chap. iv. 2) and 
go to Rome ? 

It can hardly be believed that Timothy would have dis- 



184 A HAND-BOOK OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 

regarded the request of St. Paul. Doubtless he went with 
Mark to Rome ; but whether they arrived in time to see 
the Apostle is unknown. After the death of St. Paul he of 
course returned to Ephesus, and resumed his official labors. 

The last allusion to Timothy made in the New Testa- 
ment is that contained in Hebrews, xiii. 23 : " Know ye 
that brother Timothy is set at liberty (dismissed) ; with 
whom, if he come shortly, I will see you." This reference 
admits only of a conjectural explanation. For instance : 
suppose that Timothy went to Rome, and after St. Paul's 
death returned to Ephesus, where he was imprisoned. 
Apollos, being at Ephesus, sees Timothy, and arranges 
that they should revisit Rome in company. Apollos then 
goes to Corinth, and, while waiting for Timothy, writes 
the Epistle to the Hebrews at Rome, and sends them the 
information (Heb., xiii. 23) in regard to Timothy. Yet 
all is conjecture. According to the Ancient Martyrolo- 
gies, Timothy perished in the Domitian persecution — the 
second great persecution of the Christians,* which com- 
menced a.d. 95. Tradition reports that his bones were 
afterward transferred from Ephesus, with those of St. 
John, to Constantinople, by the founder of that .city or his 
son Constantius, and placed in the Church of the Apostles. 

Timothy was ordained by the putting on of St. Paul's 
hands (2 Tim., i. 6), with the laying on of the hands of the 
presbytery (1 Tim., iv. 14) — the latter simply concurring, 
for they could add nothing to an authority conferred by 
the former, and by whom they themselves had previously 

* Historians reckon ten great persecutions. The first was by 
Nero ; the second by Domitian ; the third by Trajan. 



A HAND-BOOK OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 185 

been ordained. The Apostle acted in accordance with cer- 
tain prophecies: cf. 1 Tim., i. 18, with iv. 14; and see 
Numbers, xxvii. 18-23. When or where this ordination 
took place is not recorded. It is reasonable to suppose 
that he was first set apart for the work of the ministry by 
the Apostle at Lystra (Acts, xvi. 1), and that subsequent- 
ly he was consecrated by St. Paul for the office of an Apos- 
tle when he placed him in charge of the church at Ephe- 
sus. The ordination referred to in 1st and 2d Timothy is 
probably the latter. 

Although Timothy was consecrated to the Apostolate 
by St. Paul, he did not attain unto the chiefest Apostles 
(2 Cor., xii. 11 ; xi. o), who w T ere not by men, but by 
Jesus Christ (Gal., i. 1); for he w r as by man — that is, 
man was the instrument by which Christ conveyed to him 
the Holy Spirit for the office of an Apostle. They were 
ordained by the voice of Christ in person, and had seen 
the Lord ; he w r as ordained for Christ by one of those thus 
authorized and empowered. Consequently Timothy was 
subordinate to the chiefest Apostles, and held, first under 
St. Paul, and second under St. John. It is possible even 
that he w r as the Angel of the Church of Ephesus (Rev., ii. 
1-7), who, though he could not bear them which were 
evil, and tried the pretended Apostles, was inefficient in 
the conservation of the Church which had been intrusted 
to his care. This w 7 as just Timothy's character. Trained 
up in the knowledge of the Scriptures (2 Tim., iii. 15), 
and converted in early youth, he was earnest, self-denying, 
and affectionate. He abounded in faith, and was adorned 
by every Christian grace ; but in character he was timid 



186 A HAND-BOOK OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 

and bashful — more self-sacrificing than self-relying. Em- 
inently qualified to act as a coadjutor (Phil., ii. 22), he 
was unfitted to govern. Perhaps his youth (1 Tim., iv. 
12) and infirmity of body (1 Tim., v. 23) increased the 
natural shrinkingness of his disposition, and deterred him 
from displaying that boldness and independence which 
should belong to the character of an Apostle of Christ. 
He had more fortitude than courage. St. Paul, probably 
knowing this feature of Timothy's character, enjoined upon 
the Corinthians that they should "see" that Timothy "be 
with them without fear" (1 Cor., xvi. 10). It is worthy 
of note, also, that St. Paul, when he writes about Timothy, 
always expresses himself in terms of affectionate commend- 
ation (Phil., ii. 22) ; but when he writes to him, although 
he calls him his "beloved son," he is urgent in his lan- 
guage and manner, as if he felt that it was incumbent 
upon him to stimulate the young Apostle to the perform- 
ance of his duty. 

It is not certain, however, that Timothy was the Angel 
referred to in the Revelation . St. John was banished to 
Patmos during the Domitian persecution, a.d. 96. He 
returned to Ephesus the same year, upon the accession of 
Nerva. Neither time, age, nor character, therefore, forbid 
the supposition that Timothy was the Angel or Apostle of 
the Church of Ephesus when the Revelation was made, 
while the concurrence of the three renders it probable. 

It would be foreign to the popular character of this 
little work to enter either into an analysis or discussion 
of the celebrated disputed reading of 1 Timothy, iii. 16. 
Suffice it to say, that the passage is thus rendered by Al- 



A HAND-BOOK OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 187 

ford : And confessedly great is the mystery of piety 
(not "godliness" as in the English version, which is a dif- 
ferent word — cf. 1 Tim., ii. 10; see Trench's Synonyms 
of the New Testament on "piety"), who (not " God. 19 Ac- 
cording to the latest and most careful examination of the 
Codex Alexandrinus, made by Ellicott, the Greek word is 
hos, "who," and internal evidence of the passage itself 
sustains the reading) was manifested in the flesh, etc. 
"The intimate and blessed link furnished by the hos, 
' who,' assuring the Church that it is not they that live, 
but Christ that liveth in them, is lost if we understand 
^mystery' merely as a fact, however important, historic- 
ally revealed. The ' mystery' of the life of God in man 
is, in fact, the unfolding of Christ to and in him : the key 
to the text being Col., i. 27. This was the thought in St. 
Paul's mind ; that the great revelation of the religious life 
is Christ." A full confirmation of this may be found in 
1 Timothy, iv. 8 : " Piety is profitable for all things, hav- 
ing the promise of the life which is now and is to come." 
The " life" referred to is not the life lived (bios), but the 
life by which, and in which, one lives (zoe) — the life of 
Christ, which He lives in each one of the faithful, and 
which is the antithesis of death — the second death, the 
death of the spirit Great, therefore, is the mystery and 
profit of piety. " There is hardly a passage in the New 
Testament," says Alford, " in which I feel more deep per- 
sonal thankfulness for the restoration of the true and won- 
derful connection of the original text."* 

* See Alford's elaborate criticism and exegesis of 1 Tim., iii. 16, 
and Trench's Synonyms of the New Testament, word "life." 



188 A HAND-BOOK OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 

The object of St. Paul in writing this Epistle was to 
give Timothy a body of written instructions for his guid- 
ance in the government of the Ephesian Church. The 
Apostle had just left Ephesus, and was strongly impressed 
with the perils which surrounded the Church in that 
place, and saw the troubles which would try the young 
Apostle to the utmost. Asia was naturally the hot-bed 
of heresy and schism. The combination of Judaism,- Pa- 
gan philosophy in all its forms, and Oriental mysticism 
incessantly tended to corrupt the Gospel and pervert the 
doctrine of Christ. A few years previous, when the Epis- 
tle to the Colossians was written, incipient corruptions 
had begun to appear in that Church. Similar causes had 
given birth to them in Ephesus. In vain had Paul writ- 
ten his noble Epistle to the Ephesians ; in vain had he set 
before them ? in words of the most heavenly inspiration, 
Christ Jesus, and God's purposes in Him ; in vain had he 
declared the mystery of Christ ; the plague of heresy had 
broken out, and the faith was in danger of being utterly 
corrupted. Fully discerning the evil, the Apostle was 
deeply anxious for the welfare of the Church and the suc- 
cess of the beloved son in the faith whom he had placed 
over it. Upon an early day, therefore, after their separa- 
tion, as soon as an opportunity offered, he wrote a charge 
(chapter iii. 18) to Timothy on the subject of his duties as 
the Apostle of the Church of Ephesus. 

The Epistle opens with an affectionate address, the salu- 
tation of " Grace, mercy, and peace,"* and an allusion to 

* The Epistles to Timothy alone contain the full salutation of 
" Grace, mercy, and peace." It is found in the English version of 



A HAND-BOOK OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 180 

a previous charge given in person. It contains concise di- 
rections on the subject of the selection and ordination of 
Presbyters — here called Bishops — and Deacons, and earn- 
est exhortations in regard to his own personal duties, life, 
and manners. Injunctions of a similar nature with re- 
spect to Presbyters, Deacons, and others of eveuy age, sta- 
tion, sex, or office are added. The incipient heresies are 
pointed out, the clangers that beset the Church are set 
forth in plain terms, and Hymeneus and Alexander are 
adduced as examples of persons hostile to the truth whom 
he had excommunicated, Timothy is counseled, comfort- 

the Epistle to Titus ; but there the last and completing term, Peace, 
is an interpolation, unwarranted by the revised text of the original ; 
while in the other Pauline Epistles where the salutation is employed, 
the term Peace is omitted altogether. The following is Trench's 
exegesis of this beautiful salutation of the Apostle : '-In the Divine 
mind, and in the order of our salvation as conceived therein, the 
mercy precedes the grace. God so loved the world with a pitying 
love (herein was the mercy) that He gave His only-begotten Son 
(herein the grace) that the world through Him might be saved. Cf. 
Eph., ii. -i ; Luke, i. 78, 79. But in the order of the manifestation 
of God's purposes of salvation the grace must go before the mercy. 
It is true the same persons are the subjects of both, being at once 
the guilty and the miserable : yet the righteousness of God, which is 
just as necessary should be maintained as His love, demands that 
the guilt should be done away before the misery can be assuaged ; 
only the forgiven can, or indeed may be made happy ; whom He 
pardoned, He heals ; men are justified before they are sanctified. 
Thus in each of the apostolic salutations it is first Grace and then 
Mercy which the Apostle desires for the faithful ; nor could the or- 
der of the words be reversed." It follows that the right recipients 
of the grace and mercy are consequently partakers of the peace. Be- 
ing justified by faith we have peace with God (Rom. v v. 1) ; and the 
very God of peace sanctify you wholly (1 Thess., v. 23). (See 
Trench's Synonyms of the New Testament.) 



190 



A HAND-BOOK OP THE NEW TESTAMENT. 



ed, warned, and sustained, with all the affectionate solici- 
tude which might be expected from a warm-hearted and 
Christian father toward a son who had served with him in 
the Gospel (Phil., ii. 22). Commanded to " war a good 
warfare," urged " to lay hold on eternal life," he is finally 
exhorted " to keep that which had been committed to his 
trust" — Christ and His Church. 



Note. — Purists may find fault with our calling Timothy an Apos- 
tle. ^ Evidently he was charged to exercise the office of an Apostle ; 
hence we hesitate not to give him the appellation. We contend for 
the office, not for the name merely. We think that Timothy, an 
Apostle by man, was under the Apostle who was directly called and 
ordained by Christ in person. 



CHAPTER XXV. 

SECOND EPISTLE TO TIMOTHY. 

Since writing the First Epistle to Timothy, St. Paul, on 
his return from Crete, had revisited Ephesus. From the 
latter place he went, as is supposed, via Troas (chap. iv. 
13) and Corinth (chap. iv. 20), to winter at Xicopolis, a 
city of Epirus (Titus, iv. 12). Being suspected, however, 
of complicity with the Christians who had been accused 
of having caused the great fire of 64, he was arrested at 
Xicopolis, and sent to Rome for examination. There he 
was confined in the Tullium, and treated as a common 
criminal (chap. ii. 9). During this second imprisonment 
at Rome, in the autumn of the year 67, the Apostle, now 

"An old man broken with the storms" 

of a life peculiarly marked by hardship, suffering, and toil, 
wrote his Second Epistle to Timothy. 

The general opinion has been that it was addressed to 
Timothy at Ephesus ; but from the remarks, "Trophinius 
have I left at Miletum" (chap. iv. 20), and " Tychicus have 
I sent to Ephesus" (chap. iv. 12), it has been inferred that 
Timothy could not then have been at Ephesus. Although 
it is difficult to explain these remarks, it is not impracti- 
cable, and the opinion generally received can be sufficient- 
ly sustained. 



192 A HAND-BOOK OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 

St. Paul, when last at Ephesus, had observed the prog- 
ress which heresy was making in the Church at that place. 
The false teachers, against whom the Apostle had caution- 
ed Timothy in his First Epistle, had done their work ; the 
truth was in process of corruption ; and Timothy proba- 
bly did not display the energy and courage which the exi- 
gency demanded. Indeed Paul alone would have been 
equal to the occasion. At last, however, perilous times 
did come (chap. iii. 1) ; times which tried the soul of St. 
John, and ended in the desolation of the heritage. 

The object of the Apostle in writing his Second Epistle 
was to advise Timothy of his own state and prospects, and 
to request him to come without delay to Rome. He also 
avails himself of the opportunity to renew his admonitions 
to Timothy on the subject of his duties, and to animate 
him to a higher manifestation of Christian boldness in the 
exercise of his office. 

The Epistle in many respects resembles the first. It 
opens with the same beautiful address and salutation. 
Similar evils are pointed out, similar warnings and coun- 
sels given, and similar duties enjoined. One verse com- 
prises the sum of its admonitions : " But watch thou in 
all things, endure afflictions, do the work of an evangelist, 
make full proof of thy ministry" (chap. iv. 5). The con- 
cluding chapter contains several interesting allusions to 
himself and others. Some had deserted him ; others had 
been dispatched to different fields of labor ; only Luke re- 
mained of his old friends. He had been heard once and 
remanded to prison ; hope, therefore, of a successful result 
was not extinguished, and it may be inferred that he ex- 



A HAND-BOOK OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 193 

pected to see Timothy again. The latter is warned against 
Alexander — the same as the person referred to in 1 Tim., 
i. 20, and perhaps Acts, xix. 33. Salutations are sent to 
his old companions,, Prisca and Aquila, and to the house- 
hold of Onesiphorus. St. Paul had received much kind- 
ness from Onesiphorus, both at Ephesus and Rome. Grate- 
ful and affectionate mention is made of it in chapter i. 16- 
18. As Onesiphorus himself is not saluted, it may be pre- 
sumed that he was dead. Linus, subsequently Bishop of 
Rome, sends a greeting, also Eubulus, Pudens, and Clau- 
dia. From Alford's interesting excursus on Pudens and 
Claudia it may be gathered that the former was a Roman 
centurion who had served in Britain, and the latter, subse- 
quently, his wife. She was probably the daughter of Co- 
gidubnus, King of Sussex — one of the kingdoms of the 
heptarchy — and the first British maiden who embraced 
Christianity. Her name should be had in honor by all 
who speak the English tongue. 

St. Paul's own noble words will afford the most appro- 
priate conclusion of this notice of his last and most touch- 
ing work: "I am now ready to be offered, and the time 
of my departure is at hand. I have fought a good fight, 
I have finished my course, I have kept the faith : hence- 
forth there is laid up for me a crown* of righteousness, 

* In Greek there are two words both of which have been render- 
ed, in the New Testament, by the English word " crown," though 
their meanings are entirely different. Diadema (Latin diadema), a 
diadem or kingly crown ; Stephanos (Latin corona), a festal wreath, 
conferred as a mark of honor upon the victor in the public games, or 
upon a distinguished statesman or successful general. The diadema 
was a fascia, or fillet of white linen, bound around the head ; the 

N 



194 A HAND-BOOK OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 

which the Lord, the righteous judge, shall give rue at that 
day : and not to me only, but unto all them also that love 
his appearing," 

Stephanos a wreath of leaves or flowers, according to circumstances. 
Antony says : 

" You all did see, that on the Lupercal, 
I thrice presented him a kingly crown;" 

and Plutarch describes it as a " diadema enwoven with a Stephanos 
of laurel." Suetonius also adds, that when a " laurel corona, bound 
up with a white fascia (diadema), was placed upon Caesar's statue 
the tribune ordered only the diadema to be removed." St. Paul uses 
Stephanos, referring always to the crown of the conqueror ; cf. 1 Cor., 
ix. 24-26 with 2 Tim., ii. 5, and iv. 8. St. John employs diadema, 
implying kingly crowns; cf. Eev., xii. 3; xiii. 1; xix. 12. (See 
Trench on the Synonyms of the New Testament, from whom this note 
is compiled.) 



CHAPTER XXVI. 

EPISTLE TO TITUS. 

It has been before said that St. Paul, in the year 67, 
went from Macedonia to Crete in company with Titus. 
Leaving him there to carry out what he had only time to 
initiate, the Apostle returned to Ephesus. It will be re- 
membered that St. Paul, after he put Timothy in charge 
of the Church at Ephesus, as soon as circumstances would 
permit, addressed him a charge. In like manner, on ar- 
riving at Ephesus, he wrote Titus an Epistle relative to 
his duties. 

Titus, it is strange to say, is not once referred to in the 
Acts of the Apostles. The first allusion that is made to 
him is by St. Paul in Galatians, ii. 1, 3. He accompanied 
the Apostle on his third visit to Jerusalem, and formed 
part of the deputation from the brethren at Antioch to the 
mother Church on the subject of circumcision. The next 
notice of him occurs in 2 Cor., xii. 18, "where it appears," 
says Alford, " that he, with two other brethren, was sent 
forward by St. Paul from Ephesus, during his long visit 
there, to Corinth, to set on foot a collection (2 Cor., viii. 
6) for the poor saints at Jerusalem, and also to ascertain 
the effects of the first Epistle on the Corinthians/' St. 
Paul expected Titus to meet him at Troas; but, being 
disappointed, he pushed on to Macedonia, where he found 



196 A HAND-BOOK OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 

him returning with, for the most part, favorable intelli- 
gence (2 Cor., vii. 6) from Corinth.* After an interval of 
ten years Titus is again heard of at Crete. He had been 
temporarily placed in charge of the Church in that island, 
with instructions (Tit., iii. 12), on the arrival of Artemas 
or Tychicus, to come to St. Paul at Nicopolis. As the 
Apostle, however, did not "winter" at Nicopolis, as he 
intended, Titus must have rejoined him at Rome during 
his second imprisonment. Thence he proceeded to Dal- 
matia (2 Tim., iv. 10). The latter was a district in the 
southern part of Illyricum, where Paul (Rom., xv. 19) had 
previously preached the Gospel, and, no doubt, founded 
churches. Titus - may have been sent there to perform 
apostolic duty. Butler says, " that Titus is honored in 
Dalmatia as its principal Apostle; that he again returned 
to Crete, and finished a laborious and holy life by a happy 
death in Crete, in a very advanced old age, some say in 
his ninety-fourth year." But entire credence can not be 
given to the above tradition. 

Titus is supposed to have been a Greek. Of his char- 
acter an opinion may be formed from several passages in 
Second Corinthians, viz., chap. ii. 13 ; vii. 6-15 ; viii. 6, 
16, 17, 23 ; xii. 18 ; and Titus, i. 4. He appears to have 
possessed a warm temperament, an affectionate disposition, 
and to have made an earnest, zealous, and efficient minis- 
ter of Christ. He was probably first set apart at Antioch, 
though it is evident that he was afterward intrusted with 

* It is almost certain that Titus returned to Corinth (2 Cor., viii. 
6) to finish the collection already begun, and carried with him the 
Second Epistle to the Corinthians. 



A HAND-BOOK OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 197 

the same apostolic powers as Timothy. Certainly he ex- 
ercised the office of the apostolate at Crete, and most like- 
ly in Dalmatia also. The latter, however, is not so clear. 
Still the gift was in him, and it is fair to presume that he 
used it on every proper occasion. 

Crete, or, as it is now called, Candia, derived its name 
from Cres, who is said to have reigned there at an early 
day. It is one of the largest islands of the Mediterranean, 
comprehending about two hundred and seventy miles in 
length and fifty in breadth, and lies across the entrance of 
the JEgean Sea or Archipelago. The primitive Cretans, 
or Eteocretes, doubtless came from the adjacent countries. 
Little, however, is known of them. Crete, in the mind of 
the classic reader, is invested with interest, from having 
been the birth-place of Teucer, the founder of the Trojan 
race. It was also famed for possessing a hundred cities, 
and sent considerable forces under Idomeneus to aid in the 
siege of Troy. Both Homer and Virgil celebrate its praises. 
After the Trojan war it was broken up into several small 
republics, which, owing to the adoption of the old laws of 
Minos, enjoyed for many years great prosperity. The 
Romans invaded Crete during the Mithridatic war ; but it 
was not subdued until B.C. 66, when Metellus Creticus 
conquered the island, and converted it into a Roman prov- 
ince. The reputation of the Cretans, a mixed race, was 
most unenviable. Skill in archery, mendacity, and covet- 
ousness appear to have been their leading characteristics. 
St. Paul quotes (chap. i. 12) Epimenides, a Cretan who 
flourished in the sixth century B.C., in support of this, and 
later writers concur in the same opinion. 



198 A HAND-BOOK OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 

"Cretans are named among those" (Acts, ii. 11), says 
Alford, " who heard the utterance of the Spirit on the day 
of Pentecost. It is probable, therefore, that these churches 
owed their origin to the return of individuals from contact 
with the preaching of the Gospel, and had therefore as yet 
been unvisited by an Apostle, when they first come before 
us toward the end of St. Paul's ministry." It is true, the 
ship which carried St. Paul to Eome stopped at Fair Ha- 
vens (Acts, xxvii. 8), a harbor on the southern shore of 
Crete. No allusion, however, is made to brethren or 
friends having been found there, as at Sidon (verse 3), and 
it is quite likely that the Apostle did not go ashore. 

,The corruption which St. Paul found in Crete is clear 
evidence that the Church there had never received any 
sound planting or training. The island abounded with 
Jews, many of them opulent and influential, which would 
account for the Juclaizing tendency which the false teach- 
ing exhibited. This tendency was with difficulty con- 
trolled by St. Paul in person, and always broke out dur- 
ing his absence. What, then, must have been its develop- 
ment in Crete, where there had perhaps never been an 
apostle, or even elder, to purge out the old leaven ? Be- 
sides, the national vices appear to have combined with 
other evils to corrupt the Gospel ; and it may be question- 
ed whether there was any soundness left. 

What induced St. Paul to pay a visit to Crete is no- 
where explained. When in Macedonia, or near there, he 
contemplated (1 Tim., iii. 14) an early return to Asia. 
Perhaps he heard that Crete offered an important field for 
apostolic labor, and determined to go back by the southern 



A HAND-BOOK OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 199 

route. But, anxious to reach Ephesus, lie could devote 
but little time to Crete. Briefly examining, therefore, the 
position of the Church in the island, and finding that it 
was not only corrupt in doctrine and practice, but deficient 
in ministers, he resolved to place Titus temporarily in 
charge of it, with authority and directions to "set in or- 
der the things that were wanting, and ordain elders in ev- 
ery city" (chap. i. 5). Doubtless St. Paul did what he 
could while he was there, and before leaving charged Titus 
very fully in regard to his duties. Arrived, however, at 
Ephesus, his mind still upon Titus, and thoroughly appre- 
ciating the difficulties which would embarrass his ministry 
in Crete, he wrote, further exhorting him on the subject. 

The Epistle to Titus resembles the First Epistle to Tim- 
othy. The address and salutation are quite similar. Kef- 
erence is first made to the objects for which Titus had 
been left in Crete. Instructions are then given to gov- 
ern him in the selection of persons to fill the office of 
Presbyters. Cf. Acts, xx. 17, 28 ; Phil., i. 1 ; 1 Tim., iii. 
1, 2. The words Bishop and Presbyter are used inter- 
changeably in the New Testament, and must not be con- 
founded with Apostle.* The character of the Cretans is 
afterward explained and illustrated. Directions for the 
maintenance of sound doctrine, pure life, and honest de- 
portment follow, supported by references to God's grace 
and purposes in Christ, and concluding with an exhorta- 
tion to Titus to fearlessly execute the duties with which 

* All the ancient Bishops held themselves to be successors of the 
Apostles. Lawful Bishops of the present day hold the same, re- 
garding the episcopate and apostolate as equivalent terms. 



200 A HAND-BOOK OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 

he had been intrusted. Further instructions on the sub- 
ject of life and manners are then added. The false teach- 
ing rife in the island being Judaistic, the plan of salvation 
through Jesus Christ our Saviour — commencing with bap- 
tism, and exhibiting its fruit in good works — is generally 
sketched. Titus is urged to avoid idle and unprofitable 
discussions ; to admonish, and, if need be, to reject, the dis- 
obedient and unsound in faith. In conclusion, the Apostle 
desires him to come to Nicopolis, *Keferences to some 
other persons are likewise made, and the injunction to 
maintain good works is renewed. Finally, the Epistle 
closes with a general salutation and greeting and the in- 
vocation of grace. 

Let the true believer give earnest heed to the teachings 
of this Epistle, and, with God's grace, he will not fail to 
" adorn the doctrine of God our Saviour in all things." 



CHAPTER XXVII. 

THE EPISTLE TO PHILEMON. 

This Epistle is the only one which has been preserved 
of the many private letters which St. Paul probably 
wrote.* It was written at Rome, a.d. 61-63, during 
the Apostle's first imprisonment, and is exclusively of a 
personal character. The expectation of an early release, 
indicated in verse 22, and the injunction to prepare a lodg- 
ing, evince the hopeful and cheerful state of the writer's 
mind. 

Philemon was a resident of Colosse, a town near Lao- 
dicea in Phrygia. As Paul had not previously been at 
Colosse, it must be presumed that Philemon became ac- 
quainted with him during the abode of the former at Eph- 
esus. If Paul had been at Colosse and founded a Church, 
Luke would certainly have recorded it. The contrary 
may, therefore, be inferred. St. Paul appears to have en- 

* 1 Cor., xvi. 3. And when I come, whomsoever ye shall approve, 
these will I send with letters, to bear your gift to Jerusalem ; that 
is, Paul would give them letters to several persons in Jerusalem. 
" Hence we see," says Meyer, " how common in Paul's practice was 
the writing of Epistles. Who knows how many private letters of his 
not addressed to churches have been lost ? The only letter of the 
kind which remains to us (except the Pastoral Epistles), viz., that to 
Philemon, owes its preservation perhaps to the mere circumstance 
that it is at the same time addressed to the church in the house of 
Philemon. Verse 2." (See Alford.) 



202 A HAND-BOOK OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 

tertained a warm personal regard for Philemon, and to 
have been the instrument of his conversion. It is evident 
that he was a prominent man and a leading Christian, at 
whose house the Church probably assembled. Apphia is 
supposed to have been his wife, and Archippus his son. 
The latter (cf. Col., iv. 17) held some official position in 
the Church, but what is not known. Doubtless it was 
that of Presbyter. It does not appear that Philemon held 
any office, though subsequently there was a bishop of that 
name at Laodicea. He may not, however, have been the 
same person. 

It seems that Philemon had a slave, Onesimus, who had 
robbed him and fled to Rome. Onesimus may have for- 
merly been at Ephesus with his master, and there seen 
Paul, and perhaps been partially converted by him. Find- 
ing himself at Rome, and possibly in distress, and learning 
that Paul, a brother, was residing there — all Christians 
were then brethren — he went to see him. As the Apostle 
was then living in his own hired house he may have taken 
the runaway into his employment, not only out of regard 
for Philemon, but through compassion for Onesimus, whose 
conversion he possibly thought had not been perfected. It 
may be, however, that Onesimus saw Paul for the first 
time at Rome, and then only through the assistance of 
third parties. From his master having been a Christian, 
it seems reasonable to believe that Onesimus knew some- 
thing of Christianity before, and on arriving at Rome join- 
ed himself to those who were of the same faith. Wheth- 
er he was Paul's servant or not, it is clear that he was 
with Paul, and by him was converted indeed. The Apostle 



A HAND-BOOK OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 203 

kept his friend's slave as long as he deemed proper, and 
then sent him back to his master with this letter. He 
was accompanied by Tychicus, the bearer of the Epistles 
to the Ephesians and Colossians. 

It is related in the Apostolical Constitutions that Phi- 
lemon responded to the touching appeal of the friend, to 
whom he owed his soul, by receiving Onesimus as a broth- 
er and granting him his freedom. It is also said that St. 
Paul subsequently consecrated him Bishop of Berea, and 
that he was martyred at Rome. Ignatius, in his epistle to 
the Ephesians, refers to an Onesimus, who may have been 
the same person, but no certain conclusion can be arrived 
at in regard to the residue of Onesimus's life. 

This Epistle is wonderfully Pauline both in language 
and style. " Dignity, generosity, prudence, friendship, af- 
fection, politeness, skillful address, purity, are apparent," 
says Davidson. " Hence it has been termed with great 
propriety the polite Epistle. The delicacy, fine address, 
consummate courtesy, nice strokes of rhetoric, render the 
letter a unique specimen of the epistolary style." 

It has been compared by Doddridge to Pliny's cele- 
brated epistle to Sabinianus, written to thank the latter 
for taking back a freedman. 

Pliny to Sabinianus : " You have well done, on the re- 
ceipt of my letter, to take back to your house and heart 
the freedman who was once so dear to you. This act 
will be a pleasure to you : it is a pleasure to me : first, 
because I now see that you are controllable in your anger : 
then, that you so defer to me, that you either yield to my 
authority or accede to my prayers. Therefore I both 



204 A HAND-BOOK OP THE NEW TESTAMENT. 

praise and thank you ; but at the same time I would urge 
upon you for the future that you show yourself placable 
in error, though there should be no one to intercede. 
Farewell." 

Although the Epistle to Philemon is superior and de- 
mands the palm, yet, as Alford remarks, " the comparison 
is an interesting one ; for Pliny's letter is eminently beau- 
tiful, and in terseness and completeness can not easily be 
surpassed/' 






CHAPTER XXVIII. 

THE EPISTLE TO THE HEBREWS. 

In regard to this Epistle several questions arise, all of 
them bearing upon one another, and nearly all of them 
impossible definitely to answer. They will be briefly re- 
ferred to in order. 

First, Is it an Epistle I It is true that it contains nei- 
ther address nor salutation ; but the general style and char- 
acter of the book, and the personal allusions with which it 
abounds, prove beyond contradiction that it is not a treat- 
ise, but an Epistle. The conclusion also is confirmatory 
of this view. 

Second, In what language was it written ? Unquestion- 
ably in Greek. "It is not," says Alford, "a translation. 
The citations throughout, with one exception,* are from 
the Septuagint,f and are of such a kind that the peculiar- 

* " There is reason for thinking that the peculiar form of the quo- 
tation in chap. x. 30, agreeing neither with the Hebrew text of 
Deut., xxxii. 35, nor with the Septuagint there, is owing to its hav- 
ing been taken direct from Eom., xii. 19. Cf. the exhortation, Heb., 
xiii. 1-6 and Rom., xii. 1-21." {Alford,) 

t "Septuagint or LXX. — the Greek version of Scripture, which 
was received both by Jews and the primitive Christians. Aristeas 
thus describes its origin. Ptolemy Philadelphus, having determined 
to enrich his library at Alexandria with a translation of the books 
of the Jewish law, sent to Eleazar, the High-Priest of the Jews, that 
he might obtain both a copy of the original and persons duly quali- 



206 A HAND-BOOK OP THE NEW TESTAMENT. 

ities of the Septuagint version are not unfrequently inter- 
woven into the argument, and made to contribute toward 
the result, which would be impossible had the Epistle ex- 
isted primarily in Hebrew. Besides, the style of the Epis- 
tle is the most purely Greek of all the writings of the New 
Testament ; so that it would be violating all probability to 
imagine it a translation from a language of entirely differ- 
ent rhetorical character." 

Third, By whom was it written ? The Epistle to the 

fied to render it into Greek. The request was complied with. A 
copy of the Mosaic law, written in golden letters, was sent, with sev- 
enty-two men — six from each tribe — to translate it. The transla- 
tors, persons skilled both in Hebrew and Greek, were honorably re- 
ceived by the King of Egypt, and sent to the Isle of Pharos ; and 
there, in the space of seventy-two days, they completed their work. 
This version was afterward read in an assembly of Jewish priests 
and other learned men, and, being stamped by their authority, was 
placed in the library of Alexandria. This story is also told with va- 
riations and additions, some of them miraculous. All that we can 
satisfactorily say, however, of the Septuagint is, that the Mosaic 
books were translated into Greek about 285 B.C., to which other 
books were added from time to time, especially when, on prohibition 
by Antiochus Epiphanes to read the law, the prophets used to be 
read publicly in the synagogues, and on the restoration of the law 
became 'a second lesson.' It is generally admitted that the work 
was completed in the main parts prior to 150 B.C. ; that it was used 
as a sort of authorized version by the Jews of Alexandria, and by 
the Hellenistic Jews in general; and that as such it is expressly 
quoted nearly eighty times in the writings of the New Testament, 
being indirectly referred to much more frequently. And thus, to 
adopt the language of Lightfoot, 'the greatest authority of this 
translation appeareth in that the holy Greek of the New Testament 
doth so much follow it. Admirable is it to see with what harmony 
the New Testament doth follow this translation sometimes beside 
the Old, to show that He who gave the Old can best expound it in 
the New.'" (Hook's Church Dictionary.} 



A HAND-BOOK OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 207 

Hebrews has been attributed to Paul, to Barnabas, to Luke, 
to Apollos, and to Clemens Eomanus. Mark, Titus, Sil- 
vanus, and Aquila have also been suggested as barely pos- 
sible authors of it. " But who it was," says Origen, in 
the third century, "that really wrote the Epistle, God 
only knows." 

" These words," observes Alford,." represent the state 
of our knowledge in regard to this question at the present 
day. There is a certain amount of evidence, both extern- 
al, from tradition, and internal, from approximation in some 
points to his acknowledged Epistles, which points to St. 
Paul as its author. But when we come to examine the 
former of these, the tradition gives way beneath us in point 
of authenticity and trust-worthiness; and as we search into 
the latter the points of similarity are overborne by a far 
greater number of indications of divergence and of incom- 
patibility, both in style and matter, w T ith the hypothesis 
of the Pauline authorship." 

It must be remembered, however, as Thiersch well re- 
marks, " that the value of the Epistle is in no way affect- 
ed by the answer to this question, whether its author w r as 
Paul or another person. It is with this document as with 
a magnificent painting, held to be by Eaphael. If the 
painting is proved to be by another we do not lose a clas- 
sic work of art ; we merely gain one master more of the 
highest order." 

After a severe scrutiny of the evidence furnished by his- 
tory and tradition concerning the authorship of the Epis- 
tle, Alford is of opinion that "antiquity leaves us unfet- 
tered to examine the Epistle itself for ourselves, and form 



208 A HAND-BOOK OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 

our own opinion from its contents. The question, Who 
wrote the Epistle ? is as open now as it was in the second 
century. They had no reliable tradition : we have none. 
If any name seems to satisfy the requirements of the Epis- 
tle itself, if an author is to be found, it will show" 

Two inquiries arise — viz., "What data does the Epistle 
furnish for determining the author? and, In what one per- 
son do those characteristics meet?" 

In answer to the first inquiry it is premised : 

" 1. That the writer of the Epistle is also the author. 
The Epistle is not a translation, and insuperable difficul- 
ties are in the way of the hypothesis of any secondary au- 
thorship. The whole arrangement and argumentation of 
the Epistle are very different from those of St. Paul, and 
show an independence and originality which could hardly 
have been found in the work of one who wrote down the 
thoughts of another. 

" 2. The author of the Epistle was a Hellenist; a Jew 
brought up in Greek habits of thought, and in the constant 
use of the Septuagint version. His citations are from that 
version, and he grounds his argument, or places his reason 
for citing, on the words and expressions of the Septuagint 
even where no corresponding terms are found in the He- 
brew text. 

" 3. He was one intimately acquainted with the way of 
thought and writings of St. Paul. Assuming the Epistle 
to have been written before the destruction of Jerusalem, 
such a degree of acquaintance with the thoughts and writ- 
ings of St. Paul could hardly, at such a time, have been 
the result of mere reading, but must have been derived 



A HAND-BOOK OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 209 

from intimate acquaintance, as a companion and fellow- 
laborer with the great Apostle himself. The same infer- 
ence is confirmed by finding that our author was nearly 
connected with Timotheus, the son in the faith, and con- 
stant companion of St. Paul. 

"4. He was deeply imbued with the thoughts and 
phraseology of the Alexandrian school. The coincidences 
in thought and language between passages of this Epistle 
and the writings of Philo* are such that no one in his 
senses can believe to be fortuitous. 

"5. The author was not an Apostle, nor in the strictest 
sense a contemporary of the Apostles, so that he should 
have seen and heard our Lord for himself. He belongs to 
the second rank in point of time, of apostolic men — to those 
who heard from eye and ear witnesses ; cf. chap. ii. 3. 

"6. We may add to the above data some, which al- 
though less secure, yet seem to be matters of sound infer- 
ence from the Epistle itself. Of such a character are, e. g., 
that the author was not a dweller in or near Jerusalem, or 

* Philo the Jew, a native of Alexandria, and a member of a sacer- 
dotal family, flourished about a.d. 40. He belonged to the sect of 
the Pharisees, and was a great zealot for the religion of his fathers. 
No one was more profoundly learned in the Judaic lore and various 
systems of Grecian philosophy. His inclination toward a contem- 
plative life was nurtured by the perusal of Plato's writings, while 
their mysterious tendency served to inflame his imagination. The 
style of Philo is expressly modeled after that of Plato, and he may 
be considered the father of the Neo-Platonism, which, probably 
springing from the amalgamation of Plato's ideas with Philo's doc- 
trine respecting the Scriptures, developed itself subsequently in 
Egypt. The study of his works is interesting on account of the 
strange philosophy of their author, and important for understanding 
the Septuagint and the New Testament. (Anthon.) 

o 



210 A HAND-BOOK OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 

he would have taken his descriptions rather from the then 
standing Jewish Temple, than from the ordinances in the 
text of the LXX. : that he was a person of considerable 
note and influence with those to whom he wrote, as may 
be inferred from the whole spirit and tone of his address 
to them : that he stood in some position of previous con- 
nection with his readers, as appears from chapter xiii. 19 : 
that he lived and wrote before the destruction of Jerusa- 
lem." 

In answer to the second inquiry, it may be said, that 
upon the basis of the facts premised in reply to the first 
inquiry, nearly all the names mentioned above are ex- 
cluded. 

" Yet," says Alford, " there is one name remaining, that 
of Apollos, in whom certainly more conditions meet than 
in any other man, both negative and positive of the possi- 
ble authorship of our Epistle. The language in which he 
is introduced in the Acts (xviii. 24) is very remarkable. 
He is there described as i a certain Jew born at Alexandria, 
an eloquent man, mighty in the Scriptures.' Every word 
here seems fitted to point him out as the person of whom 
we are in search. He is a Jew born in Alexandria ;* here 

* " Alexandria was the great seat of the Hellenistic language, 
learning, and philosophy. A large number of Jews had been planted 
there by its founder Alexander the Great. The celebrated LXX. 
version of the Old Testament was made there under the Ptolemies. 
There took place that remarkable fusion of Greek, Oriental, and 
Judaic elements of thought and belief, which was destined to enter 
so widely, for good and for evil, into the minds and writings of 
Christians. We see, in the Providential calling of Apollos to the 
ministry, an instance of the adaptation of the workman to his work. 
A masterly exposition of the Scriptures by a learned Hellenist of 



A HAND-BOOK OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 211 

we have at once two great postulates fulfilled: here we 
might at once account for the Alexandrian language of the 
Epistle, and for the uniform use of the LXX. version, main- 
ly (if this be so) in its Alexandrian form. He is an elo- 
quent man and mighty in the Scriptures. As we ad- 
vance in the description, even minute coincidences seem to 
confirm our view that we are at last on the right track. 
He is described as ' knowing only the baptism of John,' 
but being more perfectly taught the way of the Lord by 
Aquila and Priscilla. No wonder that a person so insti- 
tuted should specify 'the doctrine of baptism' as one of 
the components in the ' foundation' of the Christian life 
(Heb., vi. 2). It is described as his characteristic, that he 
c began to speak boldly in the synagogue' (Acts, xviii. 26) ; 
is it wonderful that he of all the New Testament writers, 
should exhort i Cast not away therefore your confidence' 
(Heb., x. 35), and declare to his readers that they were 
the house of Christ (Heb./ iii. 6)? 

" Nor, if we proceed to examine the further notices of 
him, does this first impression seem weakened? In 1 
Cor., i.-iv., we find him described, by inference, as most 
active and able, and only second to St. Paul himself in the 
Church at Corinth. It would be difficult to select which 
should more happily and exactly hit the relation of the 
Epistle to the Hebrews to the writings of St. Paul, than 
those of 1 Cor., iii. 6, i I planted, Apollos watered.' And 
the eloquence and rhetorical richness of the style of Apol- 

Alexandria formed the most appropriate watering (1 Cor., iii. 6) for 
those who had been planted by the pupil of Gamaliel." (Acts, xviii. 
24, note hy Alford.) 



212 A HAND-BOOK OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 

los seems to have been exactly that wherein his teaching 
differed from that of the Apostle. It is impossible to help 
feeling that the frequent renunciations, on St. Paul's part, 
of words of excellency or human wisdom, have reference, 
partly, it may be, to some exaggeration of Apollos's man- 
ner of teaching by his disciples, but also to some infirmity, 
in this direction, of that teacher himself. Cf. especially 
2 Cor., xi. 3. 

"It is just this difference in style and rhetorical charac- 
ter, which, in this case, elevated and chastened by the in- 
forming and pervading Spirit, distinguishes the present 
Epistle to the Hebrews from those of the great Apostle 
himself. And j ust as it was not easy to imagine either St. 
Luke, or Clement, or Barnabas to have written such an 
Epistle, so now we feel, from all the characteristics given 
us of Apollos in the sacred narrative, that if he wrote at 
all, it would be an Epistle precisely of this kind, both in. 
contents and in style. 

" For as to the former of these, the contents and argu- 
ments of the Epistle, we have a weighty indication fur- 
nished by the passage in the Acts : c For he mightily con- 
vinced the Jews, publicly, showing through the Scriptures 
Jesus to be the Christ' (chap, xviii. 28). What words 
could more accurately describe, if not the very teaching 
itself, yet the opening of a course of argument likely, when 
the occasion offered, to lead to the teaching, of our Epistle ? 

"Again, we seem to have found in Apollos just that de- 
gree of dependence on St. Paul which we require, com- 
bined with that degree of independence which the writer 
of our Epistle must have had. Instructed originally in the 



A HAND-BOOK OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 213 

elements of the Christian faith by Aquila and Priscilla, he 
naturally received it in that form in which the great Apos- 
tle of the Gentiles especially loved to put it forth. His 
career, however, of Christian teaching began and was car- 
ried on at Corinth, without the personal superintendence 
of St. Paul: his line of arguing with, and convincing, 
the Jews did not, as St. Paul's, proceed on the covenant of 
justification by faith made by God with Abraham, but 
took a different direction, that, namely, of the eternal 
High-priesthood of Jesus, and the all-sufficiency of His 
one sacrifice. Faith, indeed, with him occupies a place 
fully as important as that assigned to it by St. Paul. He 
does not, however, dwell on it mainly as the instrument 
of our justification before God, but as the necessary condi- 
tion of approach to Him, and of persistence in our place as 
partakers of the heavenly calling.* The teaching of this , 
Epistle is not, indeed, in any particular inconsistent with, 
but neither is it dependent on, the teaching of St. Paul's 
Epistles. 

" We may advance yet further in our estimate of the 
probability of Apollos having written as we find the au- 
thor of this Epistle writing. 

"The whole spirit of the First Epistle to the Corinthi- 

* " The word dlkaioo (justify), which occurs twenty-eight times in 
the Epistles of St. Paul, is not once found in the Epistle to the He- 
brews : and the citation from Hab., ii. 4, l The just shall lire by 
faith,' though it forms the common starting-point for St. Paul 
(Rom., i. 17), and the writer of our Epistle (chap. x. 380, leads 
them in totally different directions : St. Paul, to unfold the doctrine 
of righteousness by faith ; our writer, to celebrate the triumphs of the 
life by faith ." 



214 A HAND-BOOK OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 

ans shows us that there had sprung up in the Corinthian 
Church a rivalry between the two modes of teaching ; un- 
accompanied by, as it assuredly was not caused by, any 
rivalry between the teachers themselves, except in so far 
as was of necessity the case from the very variety of the 
manner of teaching. And while the one fact, of the rival- 
ry between the teachings and their disciples, is undeniable, 
the other fact, that of absence of rivalry between the teach- 
ers, is shown in a very interesting manner. On the side 
of St. Paul, by his constant and honorable mention of 
Apollos as his second helper: by Apollos in the circum- 
stance mentioned (1 Cor., xvi. 12), that St. Paul had ex- 
horted him to accompany to Corinth the bearers of that 
Epistle, but he could not prevail upon him to go at that 
time: he only promised a future visit at some favorable 
opportunity. Here, if I mistake not, we see the generous 
confidence of the Apostle, wishing Apollos to go to Cor- 
inth and prove, in spite of what had there taken place, the 
unity of the two apostolic men in the faith : here, too, 
which is important to our present subject, we have the 
self-denying modesty of Apollos, unwilling to incur even 
the chance of being set at the head of a party against the 
Apostle, or in any way to obtrude himself personally, 
where St. Paul had sown the seed, now that there had 
grown up, on the part of some in that Church, a spirit of 
invidious personal comparison between the two. 

" If we have interpreted aright this hint of the feeling 
of Apollos as regarded St. Paul ; if, as we may well sup- 
pose in one ' fervent in spirit,' such a failing was deeply 
implanted and continued to actuate him, what more likely 



A HAND-BOOK OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 215 

to have given rise to the semi-anonyinous character of our 
present Epistle? He has no reason for strict concealment 
of himself, but he has a strong reason for not putting him- 
self prominently forward. He does not open with an- 
nouncing his name, or sending a blessing in his own name ; 
but neither does he write throughout as one who means to 
be unknown ; and among the personal notices at the end, 
he makes no secret of circumstances and connections which 
would be unintelligible, unless the readers were going 
along with a writer who was personally known to them. 
And thus the two-sided phenomena of our Epistle, utterly 
inexplicable as they have ever been on the hypothesis of 
Pauline authorship or superintendence, would receive a 
satisfactory explanation."' 

It may be added that Luther, Osiander, Le Clerc, Heu- 
mann, Lorenz Muller, Sender, Ziegler, Dindorf, Bleek, 
Tholuck, Credner, Eeuss, Feilmoser, De Wette, and Lu- 
nemann support the hypothesis that Apollos was the au- 
thor of the Epistle to the Hebrews. 

Thus much in answer to the third question. 

Fourth. To whom was it addressed? To Jewish con- 
verts. — It does not follow, however, that the Church to 
which it was written contained Jews alone ; it may have 
included Gentiles also. But, as the avowed purpose of 
the author to visit those addressed in company with Tim- 
othy, and the salutations, chapter xiii. 23, 24, forbid the 
supposition that the Epistle was intended to be a general 
letter, to what particular church was it addressed ? 

Not to the church at Jerusalem. "For," as Alford ob- 
serves, " although Greek was commonly spoken in Pales- 



216 A HAND-BOOK OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 

tine, no writer who wished to obtain a favorable hearing 
with Jews there on matters regarding their own religion 
would choose Greek as the medium of his communication 
(cf. Acts, xxii. 2). A weighty pendent to the same objec- 
tion is found in the unvarying use of the LXX. version by 
our writer, even, as in chapters i. 6 ; ii. 7 ; ix. 5, where it 
differs from the Hebrew text. 'How astonishing,' says 
Wieseler, i if he was writing to inhabitants of Palestine, 
with whom the LXX. had no authority !' 

" Another objection is, that it is not possible to con- 
ceive either of St. Paul himself or of any of his compan- 
ions that they should have stood in such a relation to the 
Jerusalem or Palestine churches as we find existing be- 
tween the writer of our Epistle and his readers. Least 
of all could such a relation have subsisted in the case of 
Apollos and Timothy. 

" Connected with this last difficulty is the impossibility 
•of giving any satisfactory meaning to the notice in chap- 
ter xiii. 24, ' They of Italy salute you.' If the writer was 
in Rome, how unnatural to specify the Jews residing there 
by this name ! if in Italy, how> unnatural, again, that he 
should send greeting from Christian Jews so widely scat- 
tered, thereby depriving the salutation of all reality. If 
neither in Rome nor Italy, what reason can be suggested 
for his sending an especial salutation to Jews in Palestine 
from some present with him who happened to be from 
Italy 1 ? 

"Again, the historical notices in our Epistle do not fit 
the hypothesis in question. The great notice of chapter 
u. 3 would be strictly true of any church rather than that 



A HAND-BOOK OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 217 

of Jerusalem. Another notice (chap. vi. 10) would be less 
applicable to the churches of Jerusalem and Palestine than 
to any others. 

"Again, if the Epistle were addressed to the Church at 
Jerusalem, it seems strange that no allusion should be 
made in it to the fact that our Lord Himself had lived and 
taught among them in the flesh, had before their eyes suf- 
fered death on the Cross, had found among them the first 
witnesses of His Resurrection and Ascension." 

Can it then be reasonably believed that the Epistle was 
addressed to the Church at Jerusalem ? 

Not to the Church at Corinth. For, though Apollos 
labored long and effectively in that Church, yet it could 
not have embraced a sufficient number of Jews or Hellen- 
ists to have induced even him to write such an Epistle.* 

Not to the Church at Alexandria. For, though there 
were the greatest number of resident Jews next to Jeru- 
salem, and there was another temple (at Leontopolis), and 
from thence the Epistle appears first to have come forth to 
the knowledge of the Church — an Epistle too Alexandrine 
in language and style — yet the Alexandrine writers make 
no allusion to its having been written to them. Besides, 
no reason can be assigned for the salutation, and no such 
relation of Timotheus to the readers as is supposed in chap- 
ter xiii. 23 can be imagined.* 

Was it addressed to the Church at Koine ? 

The following are some of Alford's reasons for answer- 
ing the question in the affirmative : 

" 1. The fact of the Church at Eome being just such a 
* See A (ford. 



218 A HAND-BOOK OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 

one, in its origin and composition, as this Epistle seems to 
presuppose ; that is, a Church not consisting exclusively 
of Judeo-Christians, but one in which Jewish believers 
formed a considerable portion — the primary stock and nu- 
cleus. Now this seems to have been the case at Rome, 
from the indications furnished in the Epistle to the Ro- 
mans. ' The Jew first, and also the Gentile' (Rom., ii. 9, 
10), is a note frequently struck in that Epistle ; and the 
Church at Rome seems to be the only one of those with 
which St. Paul had been concerned which would entirely 
answer to such a description. 

"2. The great key to the present question, the historic- 
al notice (chap. ii. 3), fits exceedingly well the circum- 
stances of the Church at Rome. That Church had arisen 
not from the preaching of any Apostle among them, but 
from a confluence of primitive believers, the first having 
arrived there probably not long after the Lord's Ascen- 
sion : see Acts, ii. 10. In Rom., i. 8, written, in all prob- 
ability, in the year 58 a.d., St. Paul states, ; Your faith is 
spoken of throughout the whole world;' and in xvi. 19, 
' Your obedience is come abroad unto all.' And in Rom., 
xvi. 7 we find a salutation to Andronicus and Junia, Jews 
' who are of note among the Apostles,* who also were in 

* Rom., xvi. 7. — "Two renderings are given to this passage: 
(1) 'of note among the Apostles' — i. e., so that they themselves are 
counted among the Apostles ; or (2) * noted among the Apostles' — 
i. e., well known and spoken of by the Apostles. I may remark that 
for Paul to speak of any persons as celebrated among the Apostles in 
sense (2) would imply that he had more frequent intercourse with 
the other Apostles than we know he had, and besides would be im- 
probable on any supposition. The whole question seems to have 



A HAND-BOOK OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 219 

Christ before me.' So that here we have a Church, the 
only one of all those with which St. Paul and his compan- 
ions were concerned, of which it could be said that the 
Gospel ' was confirmed unto us by them that heard Him :' 
the Apostle himself not having arrived there till long after 
such ' confirmation' had taken place. 

" 3. It was in Rome, and Rome principally, that Juda- 
istic Christianity took its further development and forms 
^)f error ; it was there, not in Jerusalem and Palestine, that 
at this time the 'divers and strange doctrines,' against 
which the readers are warned (chap. xiii. 9), were spring- 
ing up. We have glimpses of this state of Judaistic de- 
velopment even in St. Paul's lifetime at two distinct peri- 
ods : when he wTote the Epistle to the Romans, a.d. 58 
(cf. Rom., xiv., xv. to verse 13), and, later, in that to the 
Philippians, a.d. 63 ; cf. Phil., i. 14-17, and iii. 2, and 
the following verses. 

" 4. The personal notices found in our Epistle agree 
remarkably well with the hypothesis that it was addressed 
to the Church at Rome. The ' know that brother Timo- 
thy is dismissed' (chap. xiii. 23) may w r ell refer to the 
termination of some imprisonment consequent upon the 
Neronian persecution, from which perhaps the death of 
the tyrant liberated him. Where this imprisonment took 
place must be wholly uncertain. But the information 
could not come amiss to those who had been addressed 
'Timothy my workfellow salutes you' (Rom., xvi. 21); 
who had been accustomed to the companionship of l Paul 

sprung up in modern times from the idea that ' the Apostles' must 
mean the twelve only." (Alford.) 



220 A HAND-BOOK OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 

and Timothy' among them (Phil., i. 1; Col., i. 1; Philem., 
1) : and the they of Italy salute you (chap. xiii. 24) re- 
ceives a likely interpretation if we believe the writer to be 
addressing his Epistle from some place where were pres- 
ent with him Christians from Italy, who would be desirous 
of sending greeting to their brethren at home. If he was 
writing at Alexandria, or at Ephesus, or at Corinth, such 
a salutation would be very natural. And thus we should 
give to oi apo t they of/ its most usual New Testament* 
meaning, of persons who have come from the place indicated 
(cf. Matt., xv. 1 ; Acts, vi. 9, x. 23). 

"5. On this hypothesis, the use evidently made in our 
Epistle of the Epistle to the Romans, above all other of St. 
Paul's, will thus be satisfactorily accounted for (cf. Heb., x. 
30, and Rom., xii. 19 ; Heb., xiii. 1-6, and Rom., xii. 1-21 ; 
Heb., xiii. 9, and Rom., xiv. 7). Not only was the same 
church addressed, but the writer had especially before him 
the matter and language of that Epistle, which was writ- 
ten in all probability from Corinth, the scene of the labors 
of Paul and Apollos. 

" 6. The sort of semi-anonymous character of our Epis- 
tle, already treated of when we ascribed the authorship to 
Apollos, will also come in as singularly in accord with the 
circumstances of the case, and with the subsequent tradi- 
tion as regards the Epistle, in case it was addressed to the 
church at Rome. Supposing, as we have gathered from 
the notices of Apollos in 1 Cor., that he modestly shrunk 
from being thought to put himself into rivalry with St. 
Paul, and that after the death of the Apostle he found it 
necessary to write such an Epistle as this to the Church 



A HAND-BOOK OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 221 

in the metropolis, what more likely step would he take 
with regard to his own name and personality in it than 
just that which we find has been taken : viz., so to con- 
ceal these as to keep them from having any prominence, 
while by various minute personal notices he prevents the 
concealment from being complete % And with regard to 
the relation evidently existing between the writer and his 
readers, all we can say is that, in defect of positiye knowl- 
edge on this head connecting Apollos with the Church at 
Rome, it is evidently in the metropolis, of all places, where 
such a relation may most safely be assumed. There a 
teacher, whose native place was Alexandria, and who had 
traveled to Ephesus and Corinth, was pretty sure to have 
been : there many of his Christian friends would be found : 
there alone, in the absence of positive testimony, could we 
venture to place such a cycle of dwelling and teaching, as 
would justify the 6 that I may be restored to you' of our 
chap. xiii. 19, in the place whither was a general conflu- 
ence of all, and where there is ample room for such a course 
after the decease of St. Paul. 

"And what more likely fate to befall the Epistle in this 
respect than just what did befall it in the Roman Church — 
viz., that while in that Church, and by a contemporary of 
Apollos, Clement, we find the first use made of our Epis- 
tle — and that the most familiar and copious use — its words 
are never formally cited, nor is any author's name attach- 
ed ? And was not this especially likely to be the case, as 
Clement was writing to the Corinthians, the very church 
where the danger had arisen of a rivalry between the fau- 
tors of the two teachers 1 



222 A JIAND-BOOK OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 

" And as time goes on the evidence of this hypothesis 
seems to gather strength in the nature of the traditions re- 
specting the authorship of our Epistle. While in Africa 
and the East they are most various and inconsistent with 
one another, and the notion of a Pauline origin is soon 
suggested, and gains rapid acceptance, it is in the Church 
of Borne alone, and among those influenced by her, that 
we find an ever-steady and unvarying assertion that it was 
not written by St Paul. By whom it was written none 
ventured to say. How weighty the reasons may have been 
which induced silence on this point we have now lost the 
power of appreciating. The fact only is important for us, 
that the few personal notices which occur in it were in 
course of time overborne, as indications of its author, by 
the prevalent anonymous character: and that the same 
church which possessed as its heritage the most illustri- 
ous of St. Paul's own Epistles, was ever unanimous in dis- 
' claiming, on the part of the Apostle of the Gentiles, the 
authorship of the Epistle to the Hebrews. 

" 7. The result may be shortly stated," in answer to the 
fourth question, To whom was it addressed ? 

"As 'the current of popular opinion in the Church has 
gradually set in toward the Pauline authorship, inferring 
that a document at first sight so Pauline must have pro- 
ceeded from the Apostle himself, so has it also set in to- 
ward the church at Jerusalem as the original readers, in- 
ferring that the title 'To the Hebrews' must be thus in- 
terpreted. But as in the one case so in the other, the 
general popular opinion does not bear examination. As 
the phenomena of the Epistle do not bear out the idea of 



A HAND-BOOK OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 223 

the Pauline authorship, so neither do they that of being 
addressed to the Palestine churches. And as in the other 
case there is one man, when we come to search and con- 
jecture, pointed out as most likely to have written the 
Epistle, so here, when we pursue the same process, there 
is one place pointed out to which it seems most likely to 
have been addressed. At Eome such a church existed as 
is indicated in it ; at Rome, above all other places, its per- 
sonal and historical notices are satisfied ; at Eome we find 
it first used ; at Eome only is there a unanimous and un- 
varying negative tradition regarding its authorship. To 
Eome, then, until stronger evidence is adduced, we believe 
it to have been originally written." 

Fifth, When was it written ? " Almost all commenta- 
tors," says Alford, " agree in believing that our Epistle 
was WTitten before the destruction of Jerusalem. And right- 
ly ; for if that great break up of the Jewish polity and re- 
ligious worship had occurred we may fairly infer that some 
mention of such an event would have been found in an 
argument the scope of which is to show the transitoriness 
of the Jewish priesthood and the Levitical ceremonies. It 
would be inconceivable that such an Epistle should be ad- 
dressed to Jews after their city and temple had ceased to 
exist." 

St. Paul was probably put to death a.d. 68, the last year 
of Nero's reign ; and the city of Jerusalem and the temple 
were destroyed October, 70. As the Epistle to the He- 
brews was written at some time between these dates, it 
may be inferred that the writing took place " during the 
siege of Jerusalem by the armies of Titus, to which we 



224 A HAND-BOOK OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 

may perhaps discern an allusion in chap. xiii. 14 : ' For 
here we have no continuing city, but we seek one to 
come.'" 

Where was it written? "With regard to the place of 
writing we are almost entirely in the dark. Taking the 
usual New Testament sense, above maintained, for 'they 
of Italy' (chap. xiii. 24) — persons whose home is in Italy, 
but who are now here — it can not have been written in Italy. 
Nor is Apollos likely, after what had occurred, again to be 
found fixed at Corinth. Jerusalem, and indeed Palestine, 
would be precluded by the Jewish war then raging. Ephe- 
sus is possible, and would be a not unlikely resort of Tim- 
othy after his liberation (xiii. 23), as also of Apollos at any 
time (Acts, xviii. 24). Alexandria, the native place of Apol- 
los, is also possible, though the i if he come quickly,' ap- 
plied to Timothy, would not so easily fit it, as on his lib- 
eration he would be more likely to go to some parts with 
'which he was familiar than with Alexandria, where he 
was a stranger. In both these cities there may well have 
been ' they of Italy' sojourning ; and this very phrase 
seems to point to some place of considerable resort. On 
the whole, then, I should incline to Ephesus as the most 
probable place of writing : but it must be remembered that 
on this head all is in the realm of the vaguest conjecture." 

Such being the case, it may be permitted to suggest: 
(1.) That there is no good reason for supposing that Apol- 
los would not be " found again fixed at Corinth after what 
had happened." St. Paul writes (1 Cor., xvi. 12): ""I 
greatly desired him to come nnto you : but his will was 
not at all to come at this time [< apparently on account of 



A HAND-BOOK OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 225 

their divisions'] ; but he will come" Besides the intention 
expressed (chap. xiii. 12) of going to see the readers of the 
Epistle leaves it to be inferred that the writer was no more 
" fixed" than St. Paul when he wrote to the Romans from 
Corinth. (2.) The relation between the Epistle to the 
Eomans and the Epistle to the Hebrews — the salutations 
(Rom., xvi. ; Heb., xiii. 24), taken in connection with the 
fact that Corinth was the resort of Italian Jews, and doubt- 
less of Christians who had been confounded with the for- 
mer by Claudius (Acts, xviii. 2) — are points which should 
not be overlooked in connection with this question. (3.) 
Corinth lay upon one route frcmi Ephesus to Italy — the 
route which Paul probably pursued on his last journey, 
via Nicopolis, to Rome (2 Tim., iv. 20) — and as Apollos 
was expecting Timothy to accompany him thither, what 
more likely place for the former to have been sojourning 
at than Corinth? 

On the whole, is it not a reasonable " conjecture," that 
the Epistle to the Hebrews, if it was written by Apollos 
to the Church at Rome, was written by him at Corinth % 

The genuineness of the Epistle to the Hebrews has been 
somewhat obscured by the cloud which involves the name 
of the author. It must be admitted, however, that it was 
written by an eminent Christian teacher of the first cen- 
tury. The early Fathers of the Church recognized its au- 
thenticity; Clement, the fellow-laborer of the Apostles, 
quoted largely from it ; and the book soon obtained a place 
in the Sacred Canon. Of the genuineness, authenticity, 
and canonicity of the Epistle no reasonable doubt, there- 
fore, can be entertained. It must be accounted as a " por- 

P 



226 A HAND-BOOK OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 

tion of the New Testament canon, and regarded with the 
same reverence as the rest of the Holy Scriptures." 

The occasion which called forth the Epistle, the object of 
writing it, and the contents are thus finely treated by Alford: 

" The occasion which prompted this Epistle evidently 
was, the enmity of the Jews to the Gospel of Christ, 
which had brought a double danger on the Church; on 
the one hand that of persecution, on the other that of 
apostasy. Between these lay another, that of mingling 
with a certain recognition of Jesus as the Christ, a leaning 
to Jewish practices and valuing of Jewish ordinances. 
But this latter does not so^much appear in our Epistle as 
in those others which were written by St. Paul to mixed 
churches ; those to the Romans,* the Galatians, the Colos- 
sians. The principal peril to which the Jewish converts 
were exposed, especially after they had lost the guidance 
of the Apostles themselves in their various churches, was, 
that of falling back from the despised following of Jesus of 
Nazareth into the more compact and apparently safer sys- 
tem of their childhood, which, moreover, they saw tolerated 
as a legal religion, while their own was outcast and pro- 
scribed. 

" The object then of this Epistle is, to show them the 

* "One remarkable trace we have of allusion to this form of 
error, in its further development, as appears by the verdict of past 
experience which is appended, but otherwise singularly resembling a 
passage in the Epistle to the Romans (xiv. 17, 'For the kingdom of 
God is not meat and drinks but righteousness, and peace, and joy 
in the Holy Ghost'), in our chapter xiii. 9, ' For it is good that the 
heart be established with grace, not with meats, which have not pro- 
fited them that have been occupied therein.' " 



A HAND-BOOK OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 227 

superiority of the Gospel to the former covenant : and that 
mainly by exhibiting, from the Scriptures, and from the 
nature of the case, the superiority of Jesus himself to both 
the messengers and the High-Priests of that former cove- 
nant. This is the main argument of the Epistle, filled out 
and illustrated by various corollaries springing out of its 
different parts, and expanding in the directions of encour- 
agement, warning, and illustration. 

"This argument is entered on at once without intro- 
duction in chapter i., where Christ's superiority to the 
angels, the mediators of the old covenant, is demonstrated 
from Scripture. Then having interposed (ii. 1-4) a cau- 
tion on the greater necessity of taking heed to the things 
which they had heard, he shows (ii. 5-18) why He to 
whom, and not to the angels, the future world is subjected, 
yet was made lower than the angels — viz., that He might 
become our merciful and faithful High-Priest to deliver 
and to save us, Himself having undergone temptation like 
ourselves. 

"Having mentioned this title of Christ, he goes back, 
and prepares the way for its fuller treatment, by a com- 
parison of Him with Moses (iii. 1-6), and a showing that 
the antitypical rest of God, from which unbelief excludes, 
was not the rest of the seventh day, nor that of the posses- 
sion of Canaan, but one yet reserved for the people of God 
(iii. 7 ; iv. 10), into which we must all the more strive to 
enter, because the word of our God is keen and searching 
in judgment, and nothing hidden from His sight, with 
whom we have to do (iv. 11-13). 

"He now resumes the main consideration of his great 



228 A HAND-BOOK OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 

subject, the High-priesthood of Christ, with a hortatory 
note of passage (iv. 13-16). This subject he pursues 
through the whole middle portion of the Epistle (v. 1 ; x. 
18), treating it in its various aspects and requirements. 
Of these we have (v. 1-10) the conditions of High-priest- 
hood : (v. 1 1 ; vi. 20) a digression complaining", with refer- 
ence to the difficult subject of the Melchisedek priesthood, 
of their low state of spiritual attainment ; warning them 
of the necessity of progress, but encouraging them by God's 
faithfulness : (vii. 1 ; x. 18) the priesthood of Christ after 
the order of Melchisedek, in its distinction from the Levit- 
ical priesthood, as perpetual — as superior, in that Abra- 
ham acknowledged himself inferior to Melchisedek — as 
having power of endless life — as constituted with an oath 
— as living forever — as without sin — as belonging to the 
heavenly sanctuary, and to a covenant promised by Qod 
himself — as consisting in better ministrations, able to pu- 
rify the conscience itself, and to put away sin by the one 
Sacrifice of the Son of God. 

" Having thus completed his main argument, he devotes 
the concluding portion (x. 19 ; xiii. 25) to a series of sol- 
emn exhortations to endurance in confidence and patience, 
and illustrations of that faith on which both must be 
founded. In x. 19-39 we have exhortation and warning 
deduced from the facts lately proved, our access to the 
heavenly place, and our having a High-Priest over the 
house of God ; then, by the Pauline citation, ' the just shall 
live by faith' (taken from Pom. xii. 19), a transition-note 
is struck to chapter xi., which entirely consists in a pane- 
gyric of faith, and a recounting of its triumphs ; on a re- 



A HAND-BOOK OP THE NEW TESTAMENT. 229 

view of which the exhortation to run the race set before 
us, and endure chastisement, is again taken up (chap. xii.). 
And the same hortatory strain is pursued to the end of the 
Epistle ; the glorious privileges of the Christian covenant 
being held forth, and the awful peril of forfeiting them by 
apostasy; and those graces and active virtues, and that 
steadfastness in suffering shame being enjoined which are 
necessary to the following and imitation of Jesus Christ. 
The valedictory prayer (xiii. 20, 21), and one or two per- 
sonal notices and greetings, conclude the whole. 

"The style of our Epistle," Alford concludes, "has al- 
ready been touched upon in the inquiry respecting the au- 
thorship. From the earliest times its diversity from the 
writings of St. Paul has been matter of remark.* The 
main difference for us, which will also set forth its charac- 
teristic peculiarity, is, that whereas St. Paul -is ever, as it 
were, struggling with the scantiness of human speech to 
pour forth Iris crowding thoughts, thereby falling into gram- 
matical irregularities, the style of our Epistle flows regu- 
larly on, with no such suspended constructions. Even 
where the subject induces long parentheses, the writer does 
not break the even flow and equilibrium of his style, but 

* Clement, writing in the first century, says : ' ' One finds the 
same character of style and of phraseology in the Epistle to the 
Hebrews as in the Acts." Origen, in the third century (quoted by 
Eusebius), writes: "The style of the Epistle, with the title 'To the 
Hebrews,' has not that vulgarity of diction which belongs to the 
Apostle, who confesses that he is but common in speech, that is, in 
his phraseology. But that this Epistle is more pure Greek in the 
composition of its phrases, every one will confess who is able to dis- 
cern the difference of stvle." 



230 A HAND-BOOK OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 

returns back to the point where he left it. See chapter 
xii. 18-24. x 

" Again, the greatest pains are bestowed on a matter 
which does not seem to have engaged the attention of the 
other sacred writers, even including St. Paul himself — 
viz., rhetorical rhythm, and equilibrium of words and sen- 
tences. In St. Paul's most glorious outbursts of eloquence 
he is not rhetorical. In those of the writer of our Epistle 
he is elaborately and faultlessly rhetorical. The ' sundry 
times' and ' divers manners' of the opening are, as it were, 
a key-note of the rhythmical style of the whole. The par- 
ticles and participles used are all weighed with a view 
to this effect. The simple expressions of the other sacred 
writers are expanded into longer words, or into sonorous 
and majestic clauses: the ' reward' (1 Cor., iii. 8) of St. 
Paul becomes (Heb., xi. 26) i recompence of reward :' the 

< blood' (Col., i. 20), < blood-shedding' (Heb., ix. 22) : where 
St. Paul describes our ascended Lord as .sitting ' on the 
right hand of God' (Col., iii. 1 : cf. Kom., viii. 34 ; Eph., 
i. 20), here we have (i. 3), ' sat down on the right hand of 
the Majesty on high' (viii. 1), 'set on the right hand of the 
throne of the Majesty in the heavens' (xii. 2), ' set down at 
the right hand of the throne of God :' where St. Paul de- 
scribes Him as 'the image of God' (2 Cor., iv. 4), or as 

< the image of the invisible God' (Col., i. 15), here we have 
(i. 3), 6 the brightness of His glory, and the express image 
of His Person.' " 

Abounding, as this admirable Epistle does, in noble pas- 
sages, there is one which, in conclusion, it may be said, 
should not only be bound upon the hands for a sign, and 



A HAND-BOOK OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 231 

be as a frontlet between the eyes, but be pondered in the 
hearts of all : "Let us run with patience the race that is 
set before us, looking unto Jesus." 

Again, " Follow peace with all, and holiness, without 
which no man shall see the Lord ; and see that ye refuse 
not Him that speaketh. For if they escaped not who 
refused him that spake on earth, much more shall not 
we escape if we turn away from Him that speaketh from 
heaven." 



CHAPTER XXIX. 

EPISTLE OF JAMES. 

The Epistles now to be considered are known in the 
Canon as the Catholic* or General Epistles. The appel- 
lation, which is of later date than the Epistles themselves, 
was probably conferred upon them while the Canon was 
in process of formation. The Second and Third Epistles 
of John, though included in the number, are not general, 

* The word Catholic signifies universal or general. Thus the gen- 
eral resurrection at the last day is called the Catholic resurrection ; 
and the sacrifice of Christ for the sins of the whole world is called 
the Catholic sacrifice. After the arrangement of the Empire by Con- 
stantine into thirteen Dioceses, the fiscal agent- of the Emperor in 
each was called the Catholicos. It was afterward used in the Church, 
and is so employed now by the Armenians and Syrians to denote 
their chief Bishop. In ecclesiastical usage the Catholic Church sig- 
nified the Church Universal, or General, dispersed through the whole 
world. It is Catholic, as enduring throughout all ages ; as not lim- 
ited, like the Jewish Church, to one people ; and in respect to faith 
and practice, as teaching all truth, and requiring holiness from all. 
(See Jarvis's Reply, page 21 ; and Theoph.Americanus, page 5.) The 
pretension of the Roman Church to the appellation of the Catholic 
Church is simply an absurdity, and the phrase Catholics, usually 
employed to designate the people of that communion, an unfortu- 
nate misnomer. So far from being Catholic, the Roman Church is 
heretical, in having perverted the faith — schismatic, in having rent 
the body of Christ, which is the Catholic Church — and corrupt in 
life and practice. But she has the ministry and the Scriptures, and 
therefore, with God's grace, she can wash and be clean. 



A IIA~ND-BOOK OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 233 

and it is very likely were not admitted into the Canon un- 
til after the appellation had obtained currency. 

The Epistle of James is the first of the Catholic Epis- 
tles. Latterly the identity of the author has excited much 
discussion. There were certainly two, and perhaps three, 
Apostles of that name. 

James the Great, the brother of St. John, was one of 
the three favored disciples who were selected by our Sav- 
iour to be with Him on the Mount of the Transfiguration 
and in the Garden of Gethsemane. The two brothers 
were surnamed Boanerges. In the persecution that took 
place during the reign of Herod Agrippa L, a.d. 44, James 
was put to death (Acts, xii. 2), and thus obtained the dis- 
tinction of being the second martyr, and the first of the 
Twelve to fulfill the prophecy of His Master in being bap- 
tized with the baptism wherewith He was baptized (Mark, 
x. 39). He is the only one of the Apostles whose death is 
recorded in the New Testament. 

James the Less, one of the Twelve, was the second who 
bore the name. He was the son of Alpheus, or Cleopas, 
and the sister of the Virgin Mary ; consequently, the cous- 
in of Jesus. Three of our Saviour's cousins, it will be re- 
membered, were among the Twelve disciples — Matthew, 
James, and Jude. In regard to James the Less nothing 
particular has been recorded. 

James, the Lord's brother (Gal., i. 19 ; ii. 9, 12 ; 1 Cor. 
xv. 7), was also an Apostle, and, from the great purity of 
his life, received the surname of The Just (Compare Acts, 
xii. 17 ; xv. 13 ; xxi. 18.) He was first Bishop of Jeru- 
salem, presided in the Council of the Mother Church (Acts, 



234 A HAND-BOOK OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 

xv.) a.d. 50, and pronounced the decision of that body on 
the question of circumcision. Afterward he embodied his 
decision in a letter, which Paul delivered to the brethren at 
Antioch, and subsequently circulated among the churches 
of Asia (Acts, xv. 23 ; xvi. 4). The classic form of the salu- 
tation employed (Acts, xv. 23, and James, i. 1) — cf. the let- 
ter of Lysias, Acts, xxiii. 26 — is, as Bleek remarks, "a coin- 
cidence" showing that both emanated from the same hand. 

But was James the Just identical with James the Less ? 
Was the former actually the brother of the Lord, or only 
the cousin? It is said in Matt., xiii. 55, 56; Mark, vi. 3, 
that Jesus had four brothers — James, Joses, Simon, and 
Judas, besides sisters. It is stated likewise, in John, vii. 
5, that our Saviour had brethren who did not believe in 
Him at the very time that the Twelve did believe in Him 
(John, vi. 69). After the Ascension the Eleven are re- 
corded (Acts, i. 13, 14) by name as having continued in 
prayer with the women and Mary, the mother of Jesus, 
and with His brethren. And in 1 Cor., ix. 5, St. Paul 
alludes to the brethren of the Lord in a way which gives 
room for the inference that they were not of the Twelve. 
Who were they ? 

Alford states, as the "result of an inquiry based on 
Scripture testimony only, (1.) That there were four persons 
known as the brethren of the Lord, or His brethren, not 
of the number of the Tivelve. (2.) That these persons are 
found in all places (except Matt., xiii. 55), where their 
names occur in the Gospels, in immediate connection with 
Mary, the mother of the Lord. (3.) That not a word is 
any where dropped to prevent us from inferring that the 






A HAND-BOOK OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 235 

brothers and sisters were His relations in the same literal 
sense as we know His mother to have been ; but that His 
own saying, where he distinguishes His relations accord- 
ing to the flesh from His disciples (chap. xii. 50), seems to 
sanction that inference. (4.) That nothing is said from 
which it can be inferred whether Joseph had been mar- 
ried before he appears in the Gospel history. (5.) That 
the silence of the Scripture narrative leaves it free for 
Christians to believe these to have been real younger breth- 
ren and sisters of our Lord, without incurring any imputa- 
tion of unsoundness of belief as to His miraculous concep- 
tion. The fact is, that the two matters, the miraculous 
conception of the Lord Jesus by the Holy Ghost, and the 
subsequent virginity of His mother, are essentially and en- 
tirely distinct." The simple interpretation of Matt., i. 25 
confirms the above opinion ; and Alford adds, " No one 
would have thought of interpreting the verse any other- 
wise than in its plain meaning, except to force it into ac- 
cordance with a preconceived notion of the perpetual vir- 
ginity of Mary." Psalm lxix. 8, 9, seems also to point in 
the same direction. 

"I believe," continues Alford, "Jatnea the Just, the 
author of the Epistle, whom we find presiding over the 
Church at Jerusalem, to have been one of those brethren 
of the Lord (Matt., xiii. 55) whom I have maintained were 
His real maternal brethren, sons of Joseph and Mary — to 
have been an Apostle, as Paul and Barnabas, but not of 
the number of the Twelve — and to have been, therefore, 
distinct from James, the son of Alpheus, enumerated (Matt., 
x. 3, 11) among the Twelve." 



236 A HAND-BOOK OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 

Alford likewise mentions two traditions respecting the 
brethren of the Lord. " (1.) That they were all sons of 
Alpheus, or Cleopas, and Mary, the sister of the mother 
of our Lord, and so cousins of Jesus, and called, agreeably 
to Jewish usage, His brothers. (2.) That they were chil- 
dren of Joseph by a former marriage (or even by a later 
one with Mary, wife of Cleopas, to raise up seed to his 
dead brother — as Cleopas is said to have been).*' But he 
argues strongly in opposition to these traditions, and ar- 
rives at the conclusion above stated. Others, however, 
have sustained these traditions, being unwilling to admit 
that Mary was not ever Virgin. Ezekiel, xliv. 2 has been 
curiously quoted in support of that position. 

That James the Just, who presided over the Church at 
Jerusalem, was the author of the Epistle, can not be doubt- 
ed ; but whether he was, as we believe, the uterine broth- 
er of our Saviour, or identical with James the Less, the 
son of Alpheus, and cousin of Jesus, is a question which 
will never be settled to the satisfaction of all, as there is 
not sufficient Scriptural evidence to put the matter beyond 
a doubt. 

James the Just suffered martyrdom at Jerusalem, a.d. 
69, the same year that the city was invested by the Ro- 
mans. His death did not long precede the destruction of 
the Temple. 

"He was," says Alford, "among all the sacred writers 
of the New Testament the representative of the strictest 
adherence to, and loftiest appreciation of, the pure standard 
of legal morality. All that the law was, from its intrinsic 
holiness, justice, and goodness (Rom., vii. 12), capable of 



A HAND-BOOK OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 237 

being to Christians, he would be sure to attribute to it. 
And therefore, when his judgment (Acts, xv. 13), as well 
as that of Peter, was given in favor of the freedom of the 
Gentiles, the disputers, even of the Pharisaic party, were 
silenced." 

St. Paul, in regard to the controversy that arose be- 
tween himself and St. Peter at Antioch about Judaizing, 
writes : " Before that certain came from James, Peter did 
eat with the Gentiles,'' etc. (Gal., ii. 12). As this took 
place after the decision of the Council at Jerusalem (Acts, 
xv.), both the courage and the sincerity of St. James would 
seem to be open to question. Alford thinks, however, that 
the consistency of James can not be impugned with rea- 
son. Eecognizing in Gal., ii. 12 "a mission from James 
for the purpose of admonishing the Jewish converts at An- 
tioch of their obligations, from which the Gentiles were 
free," he maintains "that, even after the decision of the 
Council at Jerusalem, James may have retained his strict 
view of the duties of Jewish converts." " Thus," he adds, 
" there is no occasion to assume that he had been overper- 
suaded in the Council by the earnestness and eloquence 
of Paul, and had afterward undergone a reaction. His 
own words (Acts, xv. 9), 'them which from among the 
Gentiles,' tacitly imply that the Jews would be bound as 
before. The course of James, therefore, is consistent 
throughout." 

From the tenor of his Epistle James has received the 
appellation of the "Apostle of Works;" and as St. Paul 
is distinguished as the "Apostle of Faith," not a few have 
inferred that there must be an inconsistency between the 



238 A. HAND-BOOK OF THE NEAV TESTAMENT. 

doctrines of the two. To avoid, however, this misappre- 
hension, it is only necessary to observe that St. Paul, while 
he defends the doctrine of Justification by faith in opposi- 
tion to Justification by the law, never fails to exhort Chris- 
tians to a life of holiness. Every one of his Epistles con- 
tains requisite counsels and admonitions on the subject. 
In Titus (chap. iii. 4-8), after setting forth the "love of 
God our Saviour toward man," he enjoins that they who 
" believed" should " be careful to maintain good works." 
And James, though he lays great stress upon works, in no 
way contradicts St. Paul's doctrine of faith. " His con- 
tention," as Alford observes, " is rather in the realm of 
practice: he is more anxious to show that justification 
can not be brought about by a kind of faith which is des- 
titute of the practical fruits of a Christian life, than to 
trace the ultimate ground, theologically speaking, of justifi- 
cation in the sight of God." But both Apostles undoubt- 
edly considered works as the genuine evidences of faith — 
the fruits which a living faith should bring forth. 

"The altered meaning of the word 'religion,'" says 
Trench, "involves a serious misunderstanding in that well- 
known statement of St. James, i Pure religion and unde- 
fined before God and the Father is this, To visit the fa- 
therless and widows in their affliction.' i There,' exclaims 
one who wishes to set up St. James against St. Paul, that 
so he may escape the necessity of obeying either, c listen to 
what St. James says ; he does not speak of faith in Christ 
as the condition necessary to salvation ; there is nothing 
mystical in what he requires ; instead of harping on faith, 
he makes all religion to consist in practical deeds of kind- 



A HAND-BOOK OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 239 

ness one to another.' But let us pause a moment. Did 
'religion,' when our translation was made, mean godli- 
ness ? did it mean the sum total of our duties toward God ? 
for of course no one would deny that deeds of kindness 
are a part of our Christian duty, an evidence of the faith 
which is in us. There is abundant evidence to show that 
6 religion" did not mean this ; that, like the Greek threskeia, 
for which it here stands, like the Latin religio, it meant 
the outward forms and embodiments in which the inward 
principle of piety arrayed itself, the external service of 
God ; and St. James is urging upon those to whom he is 
writing something of this kind : ' instead of the ceremonial 
services of the Jews, which consisted in divers washings, 
and in other elements of this world, let our service, our 
threskeia, take a nobler shape — let it consist in deeds of 
pity and love ;' and it was this which our translators in- 
tended when they used 'religion' here, and 'religious' in 
the verse preceding. How little religion once meant god- 
liness, how predominantly it was used for the outward 
service of God, is plain from many passages in the Homi- 
lies, and from other contemporary literature." 

On the subject of faith and works there are two fatal 
errors. Some, like Selden, apparently suppose faith to be 
an opus or work, and therefore sufficient of itself. It may 
be feared that such faith will prove, as Coleridge remarks 
of faith without charity, " mere reprobate faithlessness." 
Others regard works even done out of Christ as meritori- 
ous. All, however, that is not of faith in Christ is sin, 
and the only value that a work can have is that it is done 
of faith, and therefore sanctified by the acceptable merits 



240 A HAND-BOOK OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 

of Christ. Believe in Christ, find maintain good works 
(Titus, iii.). Have not the faith of Christ with respect of 
persons, for faith without works is dead (James, ii.). This 
is the doctrine of Christ and His Apostles. It is all one. 
To suppose that there is a want of harmony between the 
" Apostles of faith and works" is as reasonable as to sup- 
pose that the " Apostle of love" is opposed to both. 

The Epistle of James was written at Jerusalem. Of 
that there can hardly be a doubt, though the fact is not 
mentioned in the Epistle itself. 

The majority of modern commentators attribute to it a 
date prior to the Council at Jerusalem, or about a.d. 45. 

" It consists," says Bloomfield, " of three parts : the first 
of which (chap, i.) is hortatory ; the second (chap. ii. 6) is 
accusatory ; the third (chap. v. 7) is partly hortatory and 
conciliatory, partly accusatory and monitory" 

"The immediate design of the Epistle," according to 
Bishop Tomline, " was to animate the Jewish Christians 
to support with fortitude and patience any sufferings to 
w T hich they might be exposed, and to enforce the genuine 
doctrines and practice of the Gospel in opposition to the 
errors and vices which then prevailed among them." 

"The Apostle begins," continues Mant, "by showing 
the benefits of trials and afflictions, and by assuring the 
Jewish Christians that God would listen to their sincere 
prayers for assistance and support ; he reminds them of 
their being the distinguished objects of Divine favor, and 
exhorts them to practical religion (chap, i.) : he enforces a 
just and impartial regard for the poor, and a uniform obe- 
dience to all the commands of God, without any distinc- 



A HAND-BOOK OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 241 

tion or exception ; and he shows the inefficacy of faith 
without works, that is, without a performance of the mor- 
al duties (chap, ii.) : he inculcates the necessity of a strict 
government of the tongue, and cautions them against cen- 
soriousness, strife, malevolence, pride, indulgence of their 
sensual passions, and rash judgment (chaps, iii. iv.) : he de- 
nounces threats against those who make improper use of 
riches ; he intimates the approaching destruction of Jeru- 
salem ; and concludes with exhortations to patience, devo- 
tion, and a solicitous concern for the salvation of others'' 
(chap. v.). No benediction is given. 

According to the English version two passages in the 
Epistle of James are very difficult of comprehension. They 
are thus rendered and explained by Alford : x 

Chap. ii. 13 : " For the judgment (which is coming) 
shall be unmerciful to him who wrought not mercy : mer- 
cy boasteth over judgment (cf. Matt., v. 7). The meaning 
is, the judgment which would condemn all of us is, in the 
case of the merciful, overpowered by the blessed effect of 
mercy, and mercy prevails over it/' 

Chap. iv. 5 : " Do ye think that the Scripture saith in 
vain, the Spirit that He placed in us (when the Spirit de- 
scended on the Church) jealously desireth (us for His 
own)f " These words connect naturally with the fore- 
going. We are married to one, even God, who has im- 
planted in us His Spirit ; and He is a jealous God, who 
will not suffer us to be friends of His enemy and His 
friends at the same time. The Apostle is speaking of the 
eager and jealous love of God toward those whom He has 
united, as it were, in the bond of marriage with Himself.'' 

Q 



242 A HAND-BOOK OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 

"The letter," says Alford, "is full of earnestness, plain 
speaking, holy severity. The brother of Him who opened 
His teaching with the Sermon on the Mount seems to have 
deeply imbibed the words, and maxims of it as the law of 
Christian morals.* The characteristic of his readers was 
the lack of living faith — the falling asunder of knowledge 
and action, of head and heart. And no portion of the di- 
vine teaching could be better calculated to sound the depths 
of the treacherous and disloyal heart than this first expo- 
sition by our Lord, who knew the heart of the difference 
between the old law, in its externality, and the searching 
spiritual law of the Gospel." 

Huther characterizes the style and diction of the Epis- 
tle as "not only fresh and vivid, the immediate outflowing 
of a deep and earnest spirit, but at the same time senten- 
tious and rich in graphic figure. Gnome follows after 
gnome, and the discourse hastens from one similitude to 
another: so that the diction often passes into the poet- 
ical, and in some parts is like that of the Old Testament 
prophets. We do not find logical connection like that in 
St. Paul; but the' thoughts arrange themselves in single 
groups, which are strongly marked off from one another. 
We every where see that the author has his object clearly 
in sight, and puts it forth with graphic concreteness. 
Strong feelings, as Kern remarks, produce strong diction : 
and the style acquires emphasis and majesty by the cli- 
max of thoughts and words ever regularly and rhetorically 
arrived at, and by the constantly occurring antithesis." 

* The connection between our Epistle and the Sermon on the 
Mount has often been noticed. The parallels are numerous. 



A UAND-BOOK OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 243 

••The writer ever goes at once into his subject/' says 
Wiesinger, ;; and with the first sentence which begins a 
section — usually an interrogative or imperative one — says 
out at once fully and entirely that which he has in his 
heart : so that in almost every case the first words of each 
section might serve as a title for it. The further develop- 
ment of the thought, then, is regressive, explaining and 
grounding the preceding sentence ; and concludes with a 
comprehensive sentence, recapitulating that which he be- 
gan." 

u The Greek style of this Epistle," observes Afford, in 
conclusion, i; is peculiar. It is comparatively free from 
Hebraisms ; the words are weighty and expressive : the 
constructions for the most part those found in the purer 
Greek. It does not sound, in reading, like the rest of the 
New Testament. Considering the native place and posi- 
tion of its writer, it must ever remain one of those diffi- 
culties with which it is impossible for us now to deal sat- 
isfactorily.*' 



CHAPTER XXX. 

FIRST EPISTLE OF PETER. 

Simon, the son of Jonas, was a native of Bethsaida,* in 
Galilee. With his brother Andrew he pursued the occu- 
pation of fishing, an employment quite common among the 
Galileans who inhabited the shores of the Sea of Tiberias. 
The brothers belonged probably to the middle station of 
life, but were^ doubtless in humble circumstances, as they 
seem to have carried on their business without assistance. 
Simon was married,! and resided at Capernaum. Wheth- 
er ho had children or not is unknown. { His mother-in- 
law appears to have formed part of his family, and perhaps 
Andrew also. It is generally supposed that our Saviour 
lodged at Simon's house during His sojourn in Capernaum. 

Upon the advent of John the Baptist Andrew became 

* There were two Bethsaidas, one on the western bank of the 
Lake of Gennesareth, the other, Bethsaida Julius, at the top of the 
lake, on the east side of the Jordan. The former was the city of 
Andrew and Peter (John, i. 45). The latter is referred to in Luke, 
ix. 10. (See Alford.) 

t His wife is named Concordia or Perpetua in the legends. She 
is probably the person (not church) referred to in 1 Peter, v. 13, as 
" elected" in Babylon. Compare 1 Cor., ix. 5, where it is said 
Cephas led about a wife, and therefore no doubt had his wife with 
him at Babylon. Tradition says that she was martyred. (See 
Alford.) 

X "Marcus my son" (1 Peter, v. 13) may have been the actual son 
of Peter. The truth can not now be ascertained. 



A HAND-BOOK OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 245 

one of his disciples, and was with him at Bethabara when 
he uttered the exclamation, " Behold the Lamb of God !" 
(John, i. 36) upon observing Jesus pass by. Excited by 
the expression, and perhaps remembering the wonderful 
baptism wdiich had lately taken place, Andrew and anoth- 
er disciple of the Baptist, supposed to have been John, fol- 
lowed Jesus in order to ascertain where He abode. Al- 
though invited by our Saviour to " come and see/' they 
did not immediately accompany Him, but went in pursuit 
of Simon. Andrew was the first to find his brother. 
He informed him that they had found the Messiah, and 
brought him to Jesus. When our Lord beheld him, He 
said : " Thou art Simon, the son of Jona, thou shalt be 
called Cephas," or Peter. The former is the Aramaic, the 
latter the Greek term for "a stone." Paul, in speaking 
of the disciple (Gal., i. 18; ii. 9), uses both. The Spirit 
of prophecy no doubt prompted the name. A change of 
appellation, however, on important occasions, was not in- 
frequent among the Hebrews. It will be remembered that 
Abram, Sara, and Jacob received new names as signs of 
new covenant relations with God. 

After the above event Andrew and Peter returned to 
Galilee, and resumed their customary avocation of fishing. 
Our Saviour, on His first visit to Capernaum, found the 
two brothers in the act of "casting a net into the sea." 
He commanded them to follow Him, saying, "I will make 
you fishers of men" (Matt., iv. 19). They immediately 
obeyed the command, and were subsequently ordained to 
the apostolate. When the Twelve were sent forth "two 
by two" (Mark, vi. 7), to fulfill the first apostolic mission, 



246 A HAND-BOOK OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 

doubtless the two brothers were associated in their la- 
bors. 

The following is a summary of the most important no- 
tices of Peter found in the New Testament : 

John, i. 42. — Peter named by Christ. 

Matt., iv. 18.— Called. 

Matt., x. 2.— Ordained. 

Luke, v. 8. — Alarmed at the draught of fishes. 

Mark, v. 37.— Present at the restoration of Jairus's daughter. 

Matt., xiv. 29. — Attempts to go to Jesus upon the water. 

Matt., xvi. 16. — Confesses Christ. 

Matt., xvi. 22. — Rebuked for his pride. 

Matt., xvii. 1. — Present at the Transfiguration. 

Matt., xvii. 26. — Answers in regard to the tribute. 

Matt., xxvi. 34. — Reproved for his self-confidence. 

John, xiii. 24. — Beckons John to ask who should betray Him. 

Matt., xxvi. 37.- — Present at the agony in Gethsemane. 

Matt., xxvi. 51. — Wounds (Malchus, John, xviii. 10) the High-priest's 
servant. 

Matt., xxvi. 69. — Denies his Master: Mark, xiv. 66-, Luke, xxii. 
54; John, xviii. 15. 

Luke, xxii. 61. — The Lord having looked upon him, he repents. 

John, xx. 6. — Is the first to enter the sepulchre. 

John, xxi. 3. — Casts himself into the sea to go to Jesus. 

John, xxi. 15. — Is thrice questioned by our Saviour. 

John, xxi. 22. — Rebuked for his curiosity. 

Acts, i. 15. — Addresses the disciples. 

Acts, ii. 14.— Preaches on the day of Pentecost, and opens the 
Church to the Jews. 

Acts, iii. 1. — Goes with John to the temple, and heals the impotent 
man at the beautiful gate. 

Acts, iii. 12. — Preaches to the Jews at the temple. 

Acts, iv. — Arrested, he twice addresses the Council with great bold- 
ness. 

Acts, v. 1. — Rebukes Ananias and Sapphira. 

Acts, v. 29. — Defends himself before the Council. 

Acts, viii. 14. — Sent with John to Samaria a.d. 37. 

Acts, viii. 20.— Rebukes Simon Magus. 



A HAND-BOOK OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 247 

Acts, ix. 32. — At Lydda, and heals Eneas a. d. 38. 

Acts, ix. 36. — At Joppa, and heals Tabitha. 

Acts. x. — Sees a vision — Goes to Cesarea and preaches to Corne- 
lius, and opens the Church to the Gentiles,* a.d. 38. 

Acts, ix. 26.— At Jerusalem— Is visited by Paul a.d. 40 (Gal., i. 18). 

Acts, xi. — Rehearses the matter of Cornelius to the Jews. 

Acts, xii. — Imprisoned (at the Passover), and miraculously deliver- 
ed, a.d. 44. 

Acts, xii. 17. — Conceals himself — place unknown. 

Acts, xv- 7. — Addresses the Council of the church at Jerusalem, 
a.d. 50, on the subject of circumcision — Separates himself from 
the Gentiles at Antioch a.d. 51, and is rebuked by Paulf — Sub- 
sequently he testifies of Paul (2 Pet., iii. 15). 

John, xxi. 18. — Peter's death foreshown (2 Pet., i. 14). 

Of the subsequent life of St. Peter, beyond what may 
be gathered from his Epistles, nothing reliable is known. 
" Tradition," says Connybeare, "makes him the fellow- 
worker, at Eome, of St. Paul, and the companion of his 
imprisonment and martyrdom. The tradition seems to 

* Compare Acts, xi. 19-26. In consequence of an error in the 
received text, verse 20, the English Version improperly employs the 
word " Grecians," or Hellenists. It should be Greeks — v.ncircum- 
cised Gentiles. Admitting, however, as claimed by Alford, "that 
their conversion took place before any tidings had reached Jerusa- 
lem of the Divine sanction given in the case of Cornelius," and that 
in one sense "the commencement of the Gentile Church took place 
at Antioch," and the sanction of the Holy Spirit was not refused to 
the proclamation of the Gospel any where, yet the legal extension 
of the Church to the Gentiles was first publicly and authoritatively 
made at Cesarea. 

t It has been supposed by some that the interview between Peter 
and Paul at Antioch took place prior to the meeting of the Council 
at Jerusalem. The opinion originated merely with a charitable de- 
sire to shield Peter from the charge of inconsistency. St. Paul says 
(Gal., ii. 11), "When Cephas came to Antioch, I withstood him to 
the face because he was condemned — i. e., self-convicted," as Alford 
renders it, " of inconsistency by his own conduct.*' 



248 A HAND-BOOK OP THE NEW TESTAMENT. 

have grown up gradually in the Church, till at length, 
in the fourth century, it was accredited by Eusebius and 
Jerome. If we trace it to* its origin, however, it appears 
to rest on but slender foundations. In the first place, we 
have an undoubted testimony to the fact that St. Peter 
died by martyrdom, in St. John's Gospel, chapter xxi. 18, 
19. The same fact is attested by Clemens Romanus, a 
contemporary authority. But in neither place is it said 
that Rome was the scene of the Apostle's labors or death. 
The earliest authority for this is Dionysius, Bishop of 
Corinth (about a.d. 170), who calls ' Peter and Paul' the 
6 founders of the Corinthian and Roman churches,' and 
says that they both taught in Rome together, and suffered 
martyrdom ' about the same time.' The Roman Presby- 
ter Caius (about a.d. 200) mentions the tradition that Pe- 
ter suffered martyrdom in the Vatican. The same tra- 
dition is confirmed by Irenseus, frequently alluded to by 
Tertullian, accredited by Eusebius and Jerome, and fol- 
lowed by Lactantius, Orosius, and all subsequent writers 
till the Reformation. This apparent weight of testimony, 
however, is much weakened by our knowledge of the fa- 
cility with which unhistoric legends originate, especially 
when they fall in with the wishes of those among whom 
they circulate ; and it was a natural wish of the Roman 
Church to represent the ' chief of the Apostles' as having 
the seat of his government and the site of his martyr- 
dom in the chief city of the world. It can not be denied 
that St. Peter may have suffered martyrdom at Rome ; 
but the form which the tradition assumes in the hands of 
Jerome, viz., that he was Bishop of Rome for twenty-five 



A HAND-BOOK OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 249 

years, from a.d. 42 to 68, may be regarded as entirely 
fabulous." 

" That he was not there," says Alford, " before the date 
of the Epistle to the Eomans (about a.d. 58) we are sure : 
that he was not there during any part of St. Paul's im- 
prisonment there we may with certainty infer :* that the 
two Apostles did not together found the Churches of Cor- 
inth and Rome we may venture safely to affirm : that St. 
Peter ever was, in any ^ense like that usually given to the 
word, Bishop of Rome, is, we believe, an idea abhorrent 
from Scripture and from the facts of primitive apostolic 
history. But that St. Peter visited Rome, and suffered 
martyrdom there, we would fain believe as the testimony 
of Christian antiquity. 

" It may be permitted us," he adds, on this point, " un- 
til the day when all shall be known, to follow the cherish- 
ed associations of all Christendom — to trace still in the 
Mamertine prison and the Vatican the last days on earth 
of him to whom was committed especially the feeding of 
the flock of God :" in the words of Stanley, " To witness 
beside the Appian Way the scene of the most beautiful of 
ecclesiastical legends, which records his last vision of his* 
crucified Lord :| to overlook from the supposed spot of 

* " Jerome's assertion that the two Apostles suffered martyrdom 
on the same day may be safely disregarded. Upon this tradition was 
grafted a legend that St. Peter and St. Paul were ' nine months' 
fellow-prisoners in the Mamertine — obviously irreconcilable with 
2 Tim., iv. 11, 'Luke alone is with me.' It is likewise commem- 
orated by a little chapel on the Ostian Road, outside the gate of San 
Paolo, which marks the spot where the Apostles separated on their 
way to death." (CoJinybeare.) 

f " St. Peter's martyrdom is commemorated at Rome, not only by 



250 A HAND-BOOK OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 

his death* the City of the Seven Hills : to believe that his 
last remains repose under the glory of St. Peter's dome." t 

Peter possessed in an eminent degree the regard of our 
Saviour, and occupied a distinguished, if not the chief po- 
sition among the Apostles.- He was one of the three fa- 
vorite disciples. With John and James he was chosen by 
the Lord to witness the raising of the daughter of Jairus, 
the transfiguration, and the agony in the garden ; he was 
one of the four to whom the destruction of Jerusalem was 
foretold ; with John he was sent to make ready the Pass- 
over ; by order of the angel he was especially informed of 
the resurrection of Christ ; and he was the first man, as 
Magdalene was the first woman, to whom our Lord ap- 
peared after that event. How large and how important a 
part he played, both during the presence of Christ upon 
the earth and in the subsequent inauguration of His Church, 
may be readily gathered from the Scripture summary here- 
tofore given. 

The events of Peter's life are indicative of his character. 

the great basilica which bears his name, but also by the little church 
of Domine quo Vadis on the Appian Way, which is connected with 
one of the most beautiful legends of the martyrology. The legend 
is that St. Peter, through fear of martyrdom, was leaving Rome by . 
the Appian Road in the early dawn, when he met our Lord, and 
casting himself at the feet of his Master, asked Him, 'Domine quo 
vadis ?' — ' Master, whither goest thou ?' To which the Lord replied, 
'Venio iterum crucifigi.' — 'I am coming to be crucified afresh.' 
The disciple returned penitent and ashamed, and was martyred." 
{Connybeare.) 

* " The eminence of S. Pietro on the Janiculum." {Stanley.) 
f u The remains of St. Peter, as is well known, are supposed to 
be buried immediately under the great altar in the centre of the fa- 
mous basilica which bears his name." {Stanley.) 



A HAND-BOOK OF THE NEAV TESTAMENT. 251 

Affectionate in feeling, ardent in temperament, and impet- 
uous in action, be is prompt to confess Christ ; but the 
confession is hardly cold on his lips when be becomes an 
offense, and receives the same rebuke which had been 
meted out to the tempter. He is ready to die with Christ, 
and fiercely draws his sword in defense of his Master, but 
only to render his subsequent denial of Him more conspic- 
uous. In the Council of the Church he espouses the cause 
of the Gentiles, maintains their rights, and shortly after, 
at Antioch, separates himself from them, and shrinks from 
the consequences of his own act. 

These inconsistencies, however, may in some measure 
be traced to Peter's birth and education. His Jewish 
prejudices, which had become almost a part of his nature, 
made him shrink first from acknowledging a suffering 
Messiah, and then from abandoning the customs of his 
fathers. But who can measure the anguish of the warm- 
hearted disciple as he wept bitterly for his sin, or describe 
the wounded feeling with which he replied to the thrice- 
urged question (John, xxi.) that recalled his three-fold de- 
nial? It may be credited, also, from Peter's commenda- 
tion of St. Paul's writings (2 Peter, iii. 15), that he list- 
ened to his reproof at Antioch, and amended his course. 
Indeed, his Epistles are evidence of it. 

The residue of Peter's life w r as consistent. Under the 
influence of Satan, who had sifted him like wheat, he 
wavered in his action, but he did not finally fall. The 
same hand which had supported him on the waves of 
Galilee sustained him to the end of his course — until he 
should win the crown which fadeth not away. 



252 A HAND-BOOK OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 

Relying upon Matt., xvi. 13-19, the Koman Church 
claims for St. Peter a supremacy among the Apostles ; and 
upon this claim, long asserted, the spiritual assumptions 
of the Papacy have been built. The following is the 
whole passage: "When Jesus came into the coasts of 
Cesarea Philippi, he asked his disciples, saying, Whom do 
men say that I, the Son of man, am? And they said, 
Some say that thou art John the Baptist ; some, Elias ; 
and others, Jeremias, or one of the prophets. He saith 
unto them, But whom say ye that I am? And Simon 
Peter answered and said, Thou art the Christ, the Son of 
the living God. And Jesus answered and said unto him, 
Blessed art thou, Simon Bar-jona : for flesh and blood hath 
not revealed it unto thee, but my Father which is in heav- 
en. And I say also unto thee, That thou art Peter, and 
upon this rock I will build my church ; and the gates of 
hell shall not prevail against it. And I will give unto 
thee the keys of the kingdom of heaven : and whatsoever 
thou shalt bind on earth shall be bound in heaven; and 
whatsoever thou shalt loose on earth shall be loosed in 
heaven." 

" The excellence of St. Peter's confession is," says Al- 
ford, " that it brings out both the human and divine na- 
ture of the Lord : Christ is the Messiah, the son of David, 
the anointed King : the Son of the living God is the Eter- 
nal Son, begotten of the Eternal Father, as the last word 
most emphatically implies ; not ' Son of God' in any infe- 
rior figurative sense, not one of the sons of God, of an- 
gelic nature, but the Son of the Living God, having in 
Him the sonship and the divine nature in a sense in which 



A HAND-BOOK OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 253 

they could be in none else. This was a view of the per- 
son of Christ quite distinct from the Jewish Messianic 
idea, which appears to have been that he should be a man 
born from among men, but selected by God for the office 
on account of his eminent virtues. This distinction ac- 
counts for the solemn blessing pronounced. 

" The name Peter (not here first given, but prophetical- 
ly bestowed by our Lord on His first interview with Si- 
mon, John, i. 43), or Cephas, signifying a rock, denotes the 
personal position of this Apostle in the building of the 
Church of Christ. He was the first of those foundation 
stones (Eph., ii. 20; Rev., xxi. 14) on which the temple 
of the living God was built : this building beginning on 
the day of Pentecost by the laying of three thousand liv- 
ing stones on this very foundation. That this is the sim- 
ple and only interpretation of the words of our Lord, the 
whole usage of the New Testament shows : in which not 
doctrines nor confessions, but men, are uniformly the pil- 
lars and stones of the spiritual building. (See 1 Peter, ii. 
4-6 ; 1 Tim., iii. 15; Gal., ii. 9 ; Eph., ii. 20; Rev., iii. 
12.) And it is on Peter, as by a divine revelation making 
this confession, as thus under the influence of the Holy 
GhosVas standing out before the Apostles in the strength 
of this faith, as himself founded on the one foundation, Je- 
sus Christ (1 Cor., iii. 11), that the Jewish portion of the 
Church was built (Acts, ii.-v.), and the Gentile (Acts, x. 
xi.). Nothing can be further from any legitimate inter- 
pretation of this promise than the idea of a perpetual pri- 
macy in the successors of Peter ; the very notion of suc- 
cession is precluded by the form of the comparison, which 



254 A HAND-BOOK OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 

concerns the person, and him only, so far as it involves a 
direct promise. In its other and general sense it applies 
to all those living stones on whom the Church should be 
built. 

"The meaning of the promise (verse 18) is, that over 
the Church so built upon him who was by the strength 
of that confession the Rock, no adverse power should ever 
prevail to extinguish it. 

"The personal promise to Peter (verse 19) was remark- 
ably fulfilled in his being the first to admit both Jews and 
Gentiles into the Church ; thus using the power of the 
keys to open the door of salvation. As a witness of his 
shutting it also witness his speech to Simon Magus — 
' Thou hast neither part nor lot in this matter' (Acts, viii. 
21). The same promise is repeated (chap, xviii.) to all 
the disciples generally." Similar and equal authority is 
also granted to all in John, xx. 23. 

"But we must not," as Wordsworth remarks, "con- 
found primacy with supremacy. St. Peter often appears as 
first in order among his brethren, but never as higher in 
place than the rest of the Apostles ; as ' first among equals, 
not as a superior over inferiors.' " 

It is perfectly evident, therefore, that St. Peter, though 
the Rock by virtue of his confession (which, both Cyprian 
and Augustine agree, was made in the name of all the dis- 
ciples as a type of unity), was himself founded upon the 
great Rock, the Chief Corner-stone, Jesus Christ ; and that 
he possessed no greater powers than the other Apostles. 

Besides, the position which James occupied in the 
Church at Jerusalem ; the conduct of Peter toward that 



A HAND-BOOK OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 255 

Apostle (Acts, xii. 17; Gal., ii. 12); the reproof admin- 
istered by St. Paul to Peter (Gal., ii. 11-21) ; and the as- 
sertion of the former, " that he was not a whit behind the 
very chiefest Apostles" (2 Cor., xi. 5), demonstrate beyond 
contradiction the utter futility of the Romanist assump- 
tion of a Petrine supremacy. Further, in the language of 
Wordsworth : " As it is certain that St. Peter had no su- 
premacy, none can rightfully be claimed for his pretended 
successors. First, St. Peter never was Bishop of Eome in 
the ordinary sense of the term ; for if he traveled to Eome 
— which can neither be proved nor disproved — he could 
not have arrived there until toward the close of his life, 
and consequently could have no successors among the Bish- 
ops of Rome. Second, it is certain that St. Polycarp, 
Bishop of Smyrna (the Angel of Rev., ii. 8), knew nothing 
of a supremacy in Anicetus, Bishop of Rome, a.d. 155 ; 
that Polycrates, Bishop of Ephesus, and the synod of Asi- 
atic Bishops, and St. Irenaeus, Bishop of Lyons, and the 
Council assembled in that city, knew nothing of any such 
supremacy in Victor, Bishop of Rome a.d. 187 ; that St. 
Cyprian, Bishop of Carthage, and the African Bishops, 
knew nothing of it in Stephanus, Bishop of Rome a.d. 255 ; 
that St. Augustine and the Bishops of Africa knew nothing 
of it in Zosimus and Boniface, Bishops of Rome a.d. 417 
and 418 ; and the Bishops of Eome themselves, the fabled 
successors of St. Peter, were so far from knowing any thing 
of such supremacy as residing in themselves or in any one 
else, that Gregory the Great (a.d. 590) denounced the title 
of Universal Bishop as arrogant, wicked, schismatical, blas- 
phemous, and anti-Christian. It was not until a.d. 606, 



256 A HAND-BOOK OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 

when Mauricius, being deposed and murdered by the Em- 
peror Phocus, and the latter conferred on Boniface III. 
that honor, which his predecessors, Gregory and Pelagius, 
had declaimed against as monstrous, blasphemous, and sa- 
voring of Anti-Christ, that the Papacy was originated. 
And with the Papacy was joined the fiction of the one sin- 
gle Visible Head of the Church on earth. On that point, 
however, it is enough to say that Christ is the Head of 
all Principality and Power; He is over all things to the 
Church, which is His Spouse, and has no other Head or 
Husband but Christ. He only that hath the Bride is the 
Bridegroom. He is the Chief Pastor." 

The First Epistle of Peter was written in Babylon, on 
the Euphrates. " It is scarcely necessary," says Conny- 
beare, "to notice the hypothesis that in 1 Peter, v. 13, 
where St. Peter sends salutations from ' Babylon,' he uses 
Babylon for Rome. We know from Josephus and Philo 
that Babylon in the Apostolic Age contained an immense 
Jewish population, which formed a fitting field for the la- 
bors of the Apostle of the circumcision." And Alford, 
who concurs in this opinion, add^ : " It is some corrobora- 
tion of the view that our Epistle was written from the 
Assyrian Babylon to find that the countries mentioned in 
the address are enumerated, not as a person in Pome 
would enumerate them, but in order proceeding from East 
to West and South ; and also to find that Cosmas, in the 
sixth century, quotes the conclusion of our Epistle 6 as a 
proof of the early progress of the Christian religion with- 
out the bounds of the Roman Empire.' " 

The precise time when the Epistle was written is quite 



A HAND-BOOK OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 257 

uncertain. It is supposed, however, that the writing took 
place somewhere between the years 63 and 67. 

The Epistle was evidently addressed to churches in Asia 
Minor, consisting principally of Gentile converts, but also 
containing Jews. Those churches had been directly or in- 
directly planted by St. Paul ; they had been the scene of 
his sufferings and labors ; and until his latest moment they 
were the subjects of his care. Why then did St. Peter ad- 
dress them ? Was it consistent with the agreement — viz., 
that one should go to the heathen, and the other to the 
circumcision (Gal., ii. 9)? No satisfactory explanation has 
been given. Perhaps none can be. 

The bearer of the Epistle was Silvanus (chap. v. 12). 
Who he was it is useless to inquire, as absolutely nothing 
is known on the subject. It is not impossible, however, 
that he was the same as the person referred to Acts, xv. 
22, 40, or 1 Thess., i. 1. 

St. Paul having laid the foundation of the Asiatic 
churches in sound doctrine, the object of St. Peter's Epis- 
tle was to remind them of that doctrine — " the true grace" 
in which they then stood — and to exhort them to be " holy 
in all manner of conversation." Admonitions and coun- 
sels are likewise given to guide them with respect to their 
several duties, and govern them in regard to their indi- 
vidual life and practice. 

The following summary by Steiger is copied from Al- 
ford: 

Chap. i. 1, 2. Address to the elect of the triune God. 
Chap. i. 3-5. Preciousness of that mercy of God which has thus 
chosen them to salvation. 

R 



258 A HAND-BOOK OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 

Chap. i. 6-9. Manifested even in their temporal trials. 

Chap. i. 10-12. Salvation of which the prophets spoke, and which 
angels desire to look into. 

Chap. i. 13-17. Therefore the duty of enduring hope, and of holi- 
ness in the fear of God. 

Chap. i. 18-21. Considering the precious blood paid as the price of 
their ransom. 

Chap. i. 22-25. And of self-purification, as begotten of God's eter- 
nal Word. 

Chap. ii. 1-3. And of growth in the Truth. 

Chap. ii. 4-5. And of building up on Christ as a spiritual priesthood. 

Chap. ii. 6-10. Who is to the faithful precious, but to the disobe- 
dient a stone of stumbling. 

Chap. ii. 11, 12. The duty of pure conversation among the heathen. 

Chap. ii. 13-17. Of obedience to authorities. 

Chap. ii. 18-20. To masters even when innocently suffering at their 
hands. 

Chap. ii. 21-25. [For such is the calling of those for whom Christ 
suffered innocently.] 

Chap. iii. 1-6. To husbands. 

Chap. iii. 7. [Reciprocal duties of husbands.] 

Chap. iii. 8-17. All, to one another, being kind and gentle even to 
enemies. 

Chap. iii. 18-20.* For Christ so suffered and so lives for the living 
and the dead. 

Chap. iii. 20-22. And through His Resurrection and exaltation saves 
us by baptism. 

Chap. iv. 1-7. Thus then die to sin and live to God, for Christ is 
ready to judge all. 

* Chap. iii. 18-20. " The literature of this passage is almost a li- 
brary. I understand the words to say that our Lord in His disem- 
bodied state did go to the place of the detention of departed spirits, 
and did there announce His work of redemption, preach salvation, 
in fact, to the disembodied spirits of those who refused to obey the 
voice of God when the judgment of God was hanging over them." 
(Afford.) Various, and sometimes absurd enough, have been the 
interpretations given to this celebrated passage. The above seems 
to be simple, natural, and in accordance with Hooker's rule of exe- 
gesis. 



A HAND-BOOK OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 259 

Chap. iv. 8-11. Watching, edifying one another, and glorifying 
God. 

Chap. iv. 12-19. Submitting to trial as the proof of your participa- 
tion in Christ's sufferings. 

Chap. v. 1-4. Elders tend His flock for His sake. 

Chap. v. 5, 6. Younger be subject : all be humble. 

Chap. v. 7-9. Full of trust: watchful, resisting the devil. 

Chap. v. 10-11. And may He who has graciously called you, after 
short suffering, strengthen and bless you. 

Chap. v. 12-14. The bearer and aim of the Epistle : salutations ; 
concluding blessing. 

St. Peter was evidently well acquainted with the Epis- 
tles of St. Paul. A harmony of thought between himself 
and St. James and St. John may also be traced. He has, 
however, forms of expression which are entirely his own. 
The resemblance between the recorded speeches of St. Pe- 
ter and his Epistles, both as to language and in other re- 
spects, is quite apparent. 

"The style of the present Epistle," says Alford, "has 
an unmistakable and distinctive character of its own, aris- 
ing very much from the mixed nature of the contents, and 
the fervid and at the same time practical rather than dia- 
lectical spirit of its writer." There is in it no logical in- 
ference, properly so called — no evolving of one thought 
from another. The link between one idea and another is 
found not in any progress of unfolding thought or argu- 
ment, but in the last word of the foregoing sentence, which 
is taken up and followed out in the new one. 

"It has been noticed," continues Alford, "that the 
same thought is often repeated again, and nearly in the 
same words. This is consistent with the fervent and earn- 
est spirit of the Apostle ; which, however, as might be ex- 



260 A HAND-BOOK OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 

pected from what we know of him, was chastened by a 
sense of his own weakness and need of divine upholding 
grace. There is no Epistle in the Sacred Canon the lan- 
guage and spirit of which come more directly home to the 
personal trials, and wants, and weaknesses of the Chris- 
tian life. Its affectionate warnings and strong consola- 
tions have ever been treasured up close to the hearts of 
the weary and heavy-laden but onward-pressing servants 
of God. The mind of our Father toward us, the aspect 
of our Blessed Lord as presented to us, the preparation by 
sufferings for our heavenly inheritance — all these, as here 
set forth, are peculiarly lovely and encouraging. And the 
motives to holy purity spring direct out of the simple and 
childlike recognition of the will of our heavenly Father to 
bring us to glory." 

This Epistle of St. Peter has been almost universally 
a'dmired. Its praises have engaged the pens of many com- 
mentators. Erasmus regards it as " full of apostolic dig- 
nity and authority, and well worthy of the chief of the 
Apostles ;" and Bengel, in strong language, commends the 
sweet influence which it exercises over the reader. Wie- 
singer, too, a late writer, thus beautifully characterizes the 
Epistle: 

" Certainly it entirely agrees in tone and feeling with 
what we have before said of the character of the Apostle. 
His warm self-devotion to the Ldrd, his practical piety 
and active disposition, are all reflected in it. How full is 
his heart of the hope of the revelation of the Lord ! With 
what earnestness does he exhort his readers to lift up their 
eyes above the sufferings of the present to this future glory, 



A HAND-BOOK OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 2G1 

and in hope of it to stand firm against all temptation ! 
He who in loving impatience cast himself into the sea to 
meet the Lord, is also the man who most earnestly testi- 
fies to the 'hope of His return : he who dated his own faith 
from the sufferings of His Master, is never weary in hold- 
ing up the suffering form of the Lord before the eyes of 
his readers to comfort and stimulate them : he before whom 
the death of a martyr is an assured expectation, is the 
man who most thoroughly, and in the greatest variety of 
aspects, sets forth the duty and the power, as well as the 
consolation of suffering for Christ. If we had not known 
from whom the Epistle comes, we must have said, It must 
be a Eockman of the Church who thus writes : a man 
whose own soul rests on the living Kock, and who here, 
with the strength of his testimony, takes in hand to secure 
the souls of others, and against the harassing storm of 
present tribulation to ground them on the true Bock of 
Ages." 

"The whole may be summed up," concludes Alford, 
" by saying that the entire Epistle is the following out of 
our Lord's own command to its writer, c And thou, when 
thou art converted, strengthen thy brethren.' " (Luke, 
xxii. 32.) 



CHAPTER XXXI. 

SECOND EPISTLE OF PETER. 

It was assumed in the last chapter that St. Peter prob- 
ably traveled to Rome about a.d. 68 — the last year of 
Nero's reign — and there suffered martyrdom. It may like- 
wise be assumed that the Apostle, during his brief resi- 
dence in Rome, perhaps just before his death (chap. i. 13- 
15), wrote his Second Epistle (chap. iii. 1). But much 
obscurity involves the questions of time and place, and 
nothing positive can be stated in regard to these points. 

The dissimilarity that exists between the First and Sec- 
ond Epistle — especially the second chapter of the latter — 
has caused the genuineness and authenticity of the Second 
Epistle to be questioned. It is true, difference in style 
may be traced, but not greater, perhaps, than would natu- 
rally arise from difference of subject. This difference is 
only particularly prominent in a comparison of 2 Peter, ii. 
with 1 Peter, and may be easily accounted for when it is 
considered that the writer had no doubt seen the Epistle 
of Jude, and been influenced by it in the composition of 
part of his own. Resemblances, however, between the 
First and Second Epistles can easily be traced which point 
to Peter as the author of both. Since the time of Euse- 
bius, about a.d. 300, the Second Epistle has occupied a 
place in the Sacred Canon, and been generally recognized 



A HAND-BOOK OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 263 

as the work of Peter. It is only necessary to add that 
the conclusions of the most eminent critics are in favor of 
its genuineness and authenticity. 

"The relation between this Epistle and that of Jude" is 
an interesting subject of inquiry to Biblical critics, and 
one which can not be overlooked. 

" It is well known," says Alford, " that, besides various 
scattered resemblances, a long passage occurs, included in 
the limits Jude 3-16, 2 Peter, ii. 1-19, describing in both 
cases the heretical enemies of the Gospel, couched in terms 
so similar as to preclude all idea of entire independence. 
If considerations of human probability are here, as every 
where else, to be introduced into our estimate of the Sacred 
Writings, then either one saw and used the text of the 
other, or both drew from a common source of oral apos- 
tolic teaching." 

Demurring to the latter hypothesis " as not answering 
to the curious phenomena of concurrence and divergence," 
and for other convincing reasons, he continues : " We have 
then to fall back on the supposition that one of the Sacred 
Writers saw and used the text of the other. And if this 
be so, there can be but little hesitation in answering the 
inquiry on which side the preference lies as to priority and 
originality." 

Numerous examples are adduced by Alford in elucida- 
tion of this question. It will be sufficient to give one — 
perhaps the most striking among them. " St. Jude (verse 
9) cites at length from the apocryphal book of Enoch an 
instance of the different conduct of mighty angels in con- 
tending with God's adversaries. St. Peter merely asserts 



264 A HAND-BOOK OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 

generally that such is the conduct of mighty angels, but 
gives no hint of an allusion to the fact on which the gen- 
eral assertion is based ; nor does the great adversary ap- 
pear in his sentence, but in his stead are substituted these 
heretics themselves ; i where angels, being greater in 
strength and might, bring not against them before the 
Lord a railing judgment' (chap. ii. 11). This, standing 
as it does thus by itself, would constitute, were it not for 
the original in St. Jude being extant, the most enigmatical 
sentence in the New Testament. 

"As we pass on through 2 Peter, ii., while the priority 
of St. Jude," he adds, "is at every step confirmed, we de- 
rive some interesting notices of the way in which the pas- 
sage in St. Peter's Epistle was composed — viz., by the 
Apostle having in his thoughts the passage in St. Jude, 
and adapting such portions of it as the Spirit guided him 
to see fit, taking sometimes the mere sound of St. Jude's 
words to express a different thought, sometimes contract- 
ing and omitting, sometimes expanding and inserting, as 
suited his purpose/' 

Davidson and other critics likewise maintain the priori- 
ty of Jude. And if it be admitted that the latter, as sup- 
posed by some, was the coadjutor and successor of St. Pe- 
ter in the East, hardly a doubt of it can be reasonably en- 
tertained. Indeed it may be fairly assumed that St. Peter 
saw the Epistle of St. Jude when he was in Babylon, and 
perhaps took a copy of it with him when he removed to 
Pome. 

" The design of this Epistle," says Bloomfield, " is (with 
the exception of chapter ii.) very similar to that of the for- 



A HAND-BOOK OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 265 

mer. With respect to its nature and character, it is con- 
firmatory, cautionary, and hortatory. 1. The Apostle es- 
tablishes them in the truth and profession of the Gospel. 
2. He cautions them against false teachers (whose tenets 
and practices he graphically describes), and warns them 
of the mockers and scoffers who should soon start up and 
deride their expectation of Christ's coming. And after 
confuting their false assertions, he tells them why the great 
Day of the Lord was deferred ; and, having described its 
circumstances and consequences (in which there is a strong 
coincidence with the account given by St. Paul ; see refer- 
ence), he subjoins suitable exhortations to prepare for that 
momentous period. After which he concludes with a truly 
Apostolical commendation of them to the grace of God." 

The celebrated passage (chap. i. 19-21) is thus rendered 
by Alford: "And we have more sure' the prophetic word, 
to which ye do well in paying attention, as to a candle 
shining in a dark place, until day shall dawn and the 
morning-star shall rise in your hearts. This first know- 
ing that no prophecy of Scripture (Old Testament) comes 
of private interpretation (i e., springs not out of human 
interpretation, is not a prognostication made by a man 
knowing what he means w r hen he utters it). For prophe- 
cy was never sent after the will of man ; but men spoke 
from God (£ e., as emissaries from God) borne by the Holy 
Spirit." By this almost literal rendering all difficulty is 
removed, and the passage, hitherto obscure, is made per- 
fectly plain and comprehensible. 

The Second Epistle of Peter is justly distinguished for 
the sublime description which it contains of the "Day of 



266 A HAND-BOOK OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 

the Lord'' (chap. iii. 8-13) — one of the grandest and most 
fearful passages in the New Testament. The total de- 
struction of the earth by fire, and the coming of the new 
heavens and the new earth, are there distinctly foretold. 
The Day of the Lord cometh — words of solemn import, it 
cometh, it is on the way — and on that day of mercy and 
of wrath, when the heaven shall be rolled up like a scroll, 
and the elements shall melt with fervent heat, all things 
will be refined by fire, and from their ashes will arise the 
bright and new-born world, to be the paradise of the beau- 
tiful and the good. 

" The final crisis," says Mr. Black, " will involve the 
banishment forever of all evil influences and power from 
a creation which, then in its great Pentecost, shall be re- 
generated by the Holy Ghost, and shall through Christ be 
presented by the human race, made divine, to the Father 
as the glorious offering of His children. 

" 'For that consummation all nature groans.' 

" But our souls long after Thee, O Holy God, our Sav- 
iour ; that we may be transfigured into that likeness which 
the wasted heart of human nature so feebly conceives ; 
that likeness whose light is now. so quickly lost to affec- 
tions agitated by sin, and sorrow, and fear. The enemy 
came in upon us when we were young, and the desires of 
our after-years were not for Thee ; and we are sore smit- 
ten and disquieted. Oh look upon us as we are tossed 
upon the waves, and beaten by the winds, and scared by 
the darkness. Oh come to us, Lord Jesus, over the wa- 
ters, and guide us to the everlasting land 1" 



CHAPTER XXXII. 

FIRST EPISTLE OF JOHN. 

St. John removed to Asia after the death of St. Paul, 
or about the year 69, and, except the short period passed 
at Patmos in banishment, remained in that region until 
his death, a.d. 100. His Epistles were probably written 
at Ephesus, the traditional place of his residence, and where 
it is supposed that he died. 

From the ' character of his Epistles, and perhaps of his 
Gospel also, St. John has been styled the Apostle of love. 
" Legend," says Milman, "has delighted in harmonizing 
its tone with the character of the beloved disciple. When 
he grew so feeble from age as to be unable to utter any 
long discourse, his last, if we may borrow the expression, 
his cycnean voice, dwelt on a brief exhortation to mutual 
charity. His whole sermon consisted in these words : 
' Little children, love one another.' " It must be borne 
in mind, however, that this exhortation was addressed to 
Christians who, the Apostle presumed, were grounded in 
faith. "The Christian life," says Tholuck, "is a trans- 
figured childhood — a glorified childhood in faith, love, and 
hope. Like children, we believe without suspicion ; like 
children, we love without distinction ; like children, we 
hope without limitation ; and to, with this, has the Spirit 
of grace given to our faith light, to our love wisdom, and 



268 A HAND-BOOK OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 

to our hope an everlasting foundation. Honor, praise, and 
worship to Him who hath done such great things for us." 

The First Epistle of John too clearly betrays the hand 
of the author of the Gospel to leave any sane doubt con- 
cerning the writer. Its authenticity is equally apparent. 

It was probably written sometime between the years 70 
and 85. Presuming as it does on the part of its readers 
an acquaintance with the author's Gospel, it must have 
been written subsequently to the latter. 

We can not doubt that it was especially intended for 
the Asiatic churches. 

Before noticing the contents of the Epistle it is neces- 
sary to refer to the celebrated disputed reading in chapter 
v. The passage is known as that of the "Three Witness- 
es" and extends from the words " in heaven" (verse 7) to 
the words "in earth" (verse 8) inclusive. In the correct- 
ed text the passage reads : " For there are three that bear 
record, the spirit, and the water, and the blood : and these 
three agree in one." 

Dr. Jarvis, whose opinion is second to that of no one in 
this country in regard to this passage, remarks: "The 
present writer has no prejudices against the text ; for he 
fully believes in its doctrinal truth, and can therefore read 
it with a safe conscience, as he could any other apocryphal 
passage ; but he can not quote it as a part of the canon 
or rule of faith Let us examine the passage 1 John, v. 
7,8. 

" The greatest number now known of the manuscripts 
of this Epistle in the original Greek is 149. Of this num- 
ber 145 do not contain the clause from ' in heaven' to * in 



A HAND-BOOK OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 269 

earth,'* and the remaining four are of little or no critical 
value. If there then be so little authority for the dis- 
puted passage, how, it may be asked, did it creep into the 
Latin Version ? We answer, by means of marginal anno- 
tations, derived from a gloss upon the eighth verse." 

" At the end of the fourth century," says Bishop Marsh, 
" the celebrated Latin Father Augustine — who wrote ten 
treatises on the First Epistle of St. John, in all of which 
we seek in vain for the seventh verse of the fifth chapter — 
was induced, in his controversy with Maximin, to compose 
a gloss upon the eighth verse. Augustine gives it profess- 
edly as a gloss upon the words of the eighth verse, and 
shows, by his own reasoning, that the seventh verse did not 
then exist. f The high character of Augustine in the Latin 
Church soon gave celebrity to his gloss, and in a short 
time it was generally adopted. It appeared, indeed, un- 
der different forms ; but it was still the gloss of Augustine, 
though variously modified. The gloss having once ob- 
tained credit in the Latin Church, the possessors of Latin 
manuscripts began to note it in the margin, by the side of 
the eighth verse. Hence the oldest of those Latin manu- 
scripts which have the passage in the margin have it in a 
different hand from that of the text. In later manuscripts 
we find margin and text in the same hand. After the 
eighth century the insertion of the passage into the body 
of the text became general. Further, when the seventh 

* It is found neither in the Codex Vaticanus nor in the Codex 
Sinaiticus. 

t In the Greek, the disputed passage is all in the seventh verse. It 
appears differently in the English version. 



270 A HAND-BOOK OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 

verse made its first appearance, it appeared in as many 
different forms as there were forms to the gloss upon the 
eighth verse. And though it now precedes the eighth 
verse, it followed the eighth verse at its first insertion, as 
a gloss would naturally follow the text upon which it was 
made. It is not therefore matter of mere conjecture that 
the seventh verse originated in a Latin gloss upon the 
eighth verse : it is a historical fact, supported by evidence 
which can not be resisted." 

"In Cranmer's Bible," continues Jarvis, "the suspected 
passage was printed in parenthesis and in smaller type, 
but the Bishop's Bible made no such distinction." The 
version of King James followed the latter. "To account 
for this change," Jarvis adds, " let it be observed that in 
1550 appeared the famous third edition of Stephens, which 
was supposed to settle the question in favor of the disputed 
text. A mistaken reliance upon his accuracy induced the 
belief that it was contained in the manuscripts collated for 
his edition. All controversy on the subject died away; 
nor was it revived until the manhood of criticism began 
with Mill in 1707." Of course the passage is now re- 
jected by all competent critics. 

The authenticity of the last half of 1 John, ii. 23, has 
also been much questioned, and in consequence it will be 
found in the authorized English version printed in italics. 
But the passage is in the style and manner of John, and 
has been admitted to be authentic by Griesbach, Lach- 
mann, Tischendorf, and Alford. 

Not a few of the enemies of Christianity who deny the 
doctrine of the Trinity — the grand mystery of the Faith — 



A HAND-BOOK OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 271 

have hastily concluded that, with 1 John, v. 7, that doc- 
trine has lost its firmest support. The wish probably is 
"father to the thought." An examination, however, of 
one hundred and nineteen texts, collated by Jones of Nay- 
land, will convince any one willing to be convinced that 
there is abundant scriptural evidence for the doctrine of 
the Trinity without 1 John, v. 7. So cardinal a doctrine 
was never left dependent upon one text. 

"The style of this Epistle/' says Alford, "has been 
often truly described as aphoristic and repetitive. And in 
this is shown the characteristic peculiarity of St. John's 
mode of thought. The connection of sentence w r ith sen- 
tence is slightly if at all pointed out. It depends, so to 
speak, on roots struck in at the bottom of the stream, hid- 
den from the casual observer, to whom the aphorisms ap- 
pear unconnected and idly floating on the surface. Lucke 
well describes this style as indicating a contemplative spir- 
it, which is ever given to pass from the particular to the 
general, from differences to the unity which underlies them, 
from the outer to the inner side of Christian life. Thus 
the Writer is ever working upon certain fundamental 
themes and axioms, to w r hich he willingly returns again 
and again, sometimes unfolding and applying them, some- 
times repeating and concentrating them : so that we have 
side by side the simplest and clearest and the most con- 
densed and difficult sayings : the reader w r ho seeks merely 
for edification is attracted by the one, and the 'scribe 
learned in the Scriptures' is satisfied, and his understand- 
ing surpassed and deepened by the other/' 

Dusterdieck thus divides the Epistle. "Regarding," 



272 A HAND-BOOK OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 

says Alford, "chap. i. 1-4, as the Introduction, in which 
the Writer lays down the great object of apostolic preach- 
ing, asserts of himself full apostolicity, and announces the 
purpose of his writing — he makes two great divisions of 
the Epistle : the first, i. 5-ii. 28, the second, ii. 29-v. 5 : 
on which follows the conclusion, v. 6-21. 

"Each of these great divisions," continues Alford, "is 
ruled and pervaded by one master-thought, announced 
clearly in the outset, which we may call its theme. These 
themes are impressed on the readers both by positive and 
negative unfolding, and by polemical defense against er- 
roneous teachers : and, this being done, each principal por- 
tion is concluded with a corresponding promise. And both 
principal* portions tend throughout to throw light on the 
great subject of the whole, viz., Fellowship with God the 
Father and the Lord Jesus Christ. 

• " This idea" — the necessity of a right faith in the Son 
of God manifest in the flesh working the above fellowship 
— " which pervades the whole Epistle, is set forth in two 
great circles of thought, which have already been described 
as the two portions of the Epistle. These two, both re- 
volving round the one great theme, are also, in their inner 
construction, closely related to each other. God is light 
— then our fellowship with Him depends on our walking 
in the light : God is righteous — then we are only mani- 
fested as children of God, abiding in His love and in Him- 
self, if we do righteousness. But for both — our walking 
in light and our doing righteousness — there is one common 
term, Love: even as God is Love, as Christ walked in 
Love, out of Love became manifest in the flesh, out of 



A HAND-BOOK OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 273 

Love gave Himself for us. On the other side, as the dark> 
ness of the world, which can have no fellowship with God, 
who is Light, denies the Son of God and repudiates Love, 
so the unrighteousness of the children of the world mani- 
fests itself in that hatred which slays brethren, because 
love to brethren can not be where the love of God in 
Christ is unknown and eternal Life untasted." 

"The tone of this Epistle," says Ewald, "is not so 
much that of a father talking with his beloved children as 
of a glorified saint speaking to mankind from a higher 
world. Never in any writing has the doctrine of heavenly 
Love, of a love working in stillness, a love ever unwearied, 
never exhausted, so thoroughly proved and approved itself, 
as in this Epistle." 

We have stated that St. John wrote this Epistle for the 
Asiatic Churches. In those Churches heresy had sprung 
up during the lifetime of St. Paul, and had drawn from - 
him both advice and admonition. Since then false teach- 
ers had increased, and heresy had reached a larger devel- 
opment. The generic term for the heresy referred to is 
Gnosticism. Naturally growing out of the influence of 
Eastern mysticism, its leading trait, although its forms 
were legion, consisted in a denial of the Deity of Christ. 
From that grievous errors not only in belief but in prac- 
tice resulted. St. John, through his long residence in 
Asia, became familiar with Gnosticism of every shade, 
and combated it vigorously, both as an Evangelist and an 
Apostle. Our Epistle is his pleading, warning voice, urg- 
ing his children to maintain themselves steadfast in the 
love of Christ — a love w r hich is inseparable from a belief 

S 



274 A HAND-BOOK OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 

in His Divinity. It directly follows the Author's Gospel ; 
and we would commend both to any who may fondly im- 
agine they can be saved by a human device or religion — 
who vainly think they can do without the truth as it is in 
Christ, without the love which is in Jesus, without God 
the Father to whom only there is access by God the Son. 



CHAPTER XXXIIL 

SECOND AND THIRD EPISTLES OF JOHN. 

These Epistles, though quoted by the early Fathers, • 
were not established in the Canon as soon as the first. 
About the beginning of the fourth century, however, we 
find them fully received. 

It has been asserted by some critics that they were not 
written by St. John the Evangelist, but by a Presbyter 
of that name. The idea originated in the days of the 
Fathers. Jerome mentions it. It did not obtain much 
strength, however, and indeed had almost faded out when 
Erasmus revived it in the sixteenth century. Ebrard, the 
continuer of Olshausen, avers the same as the u most prob- 
able hypothesis" in regard to the Second and Third Epis- 
tles of John. Alford furnishes means for each person to 
form an opinion for himself. TTe think that, after exam- 
ining the references, nearly every one will be disposed to 
" infer" with him, that " from the testimony of the ancient 
Fathers, and from the absence of sufficient reason for un- 
derstanding the title Presbyter of any other person than 
the Apostle himself (as in the case of St. Peter, 1 Peter, 
v. 1), that these two smaller Epistles were written by St. 
John the Apostle and Evangelist." In addition, we are 
inclined to think that our Epistles are two out of many 
which the Apostle wrote as circumstances demanded. 



276 A HAND-BOOK OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 

There is no reason why some of the Epistles of John 
should not have perished as well as some of those of St. 
Paul. In regard to the latter we believe there can be no 
doubt. 

The Second and Third Epistles were probably written 
by the Apostle during his residence at Ephesus. 

Nothing certain can be predicated with respect to the 
date of these Epistles. Alford suggests that "the jour- 
neys mentioned in 2 John, 12, and 3 John, 10, 14, may be 
one and the same." Eusebius refers to a journey of the 
Apostle after his discharge from Patmos, in the course of 
which he established Bishops, regulated churches, and ap- 
pointed ministers. ".It may have been," says Alford, "in 
prospect of this journey that he threatens Diotrephes in 
2 John, 10. If so, both Epistles belong to a very late pe- 
riod of the Apostle's life, and probably subsequently to the 
writing of the Apocalypse." This would place their date 
at the latter part of the first century.^ 

In regard to the Second Epistle the question arises : To 
whom was it addressed ? 

Beza says : " Some think Eclecta (translated < elect') a 
proper name, which I do not approve, because in that case 
the order of the words would have been < to the Lady 
Eclecta.' Others think that this name denotes the Chris- 
tian Church in general. But that is disproved, first, by 
its being a manner of speaking altogether unusual ; sec- 
ondly, by the Apostle's expressly promising, in the two last 
verses, to come to her and her children ; thirdly, by send- 
ing to her the salutation of her sister, whom he calls Eclec- 
ta, I therefore think that this Epistle was inscribed to a 



A HAXD-BOOK OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 277 

woman of eminence, of whom there were some here and 
there who supported the Church with their wealth, and 
that he called her Elect, that is, excellent, and gave her 
the title of ' Lady/ as St. Luke gave to Theophilus, and 
St. Paul gave to Festus, the title of ' most excellent.' For 
the Christian religion does not forbid such honorable titles 
to be given when they are due." 

Of the thirteen verses which compose this Epistle, 
" eight/' says Dr. Lardner, " may be found in the First 
Epistle, either in sense or in expression." 

"The design of the Second Epistle was,*' says Bishop 
Tomline, " to caution the lady to whom it was addressed 
against those false teachers who asserted that Christ was 
not a real man, but only a man in appearance, and that 
he did not actually suffer what he seemed to suffer. This 
doctrine the Apostle condemns in very severe terms as be- 
ing destructive of the atonement of Christ ; and he recom- 
mends that no encouragement or countenance should be 
given to those who maintain it ; he inculcates also the ne- 
cessity of obedience to the commandments of God, and of 
mutual love and benevolence among Christians." 

Of such importance does St. John consider soundness 
in the faith, that he directs her not to receive into her 
house or bid God-speed to any one who should come with- 
out the doctrine of Christ. What, it may be asked, would 
St. John think of the manner in which the hand of fellow- 
ship is now extended by Christians to those w r ho deny the 
Divinity of Christ, and reject the Lord that bought them ? 

The Third Epistle is addressed to one Gaius, but who 
he was or where he lived we can not tell. Probably he 



278 A HAND-BOOK OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 

was some disciple of John residing near Ephesus. It would 
be idle to conjecture further. 

" The design of the Epistle/' says Mant, " was to com- 
mend Gaius for having shown kindness to some Chris- 
tians as they passed through the place where he resided ; 
to censure Diotrephes, who had arrogantly assumed some 
authority to himself; and to praise the good conduct of 
Demetrius. It is not known who the latter were." 

In style the Third Epistle resembles the two others, and 
is marked by the same simplicity and sweetness which 
characterize all the writings of St. John, the Apostle of 
the love which rejoice th in the truth— of the love which 
loves God because He first loved us. 



CHAPTER XXXIV. 

EPISTLE OF JUDE. 

Writers differ in regard to the author of this Epistle 
almost as much as in regard to the author of the Epistle 
of James. "Those/' says Alford, " who see in that James 
the Apostle James, son of Aipheus, regard our writer as 
the Apostle Jude, also the son of Alpheus : the ' Judas 
not Iscariot' of John, xiv. 22. Those, on the other hand, 
who see in that James not one of the Twelve, but the act- 
ual brother of our Lord, the son of Joseph and Mary, re- 
gard our writer as the Judas of Matthew, xiii. 55, another 
brother of our Lord, and a younger son of Joseph and 
Mary." As we incline to the latter opinion, it follows that 
we must regard our author as the uterine brother of Jesus. 
He does not assume to be, and probably he was not, an 
Apostle. A comparison of verses 1 and 17 seems to show 
this. But, as delicacy and modesty would forbid his boast- 
ing his fraternal relation to his Lord, he styles himself 
simply his "servant, and the brother of James," who, as 
Bishop of Jerusalem, and Chief of the first Council of the 
Church, enjoyed no small distinction among the Christians 
of that age.— Cf. Acts, xv. 13 ; xxi. 18 : Gal., i. 19 ; ii. 9, 12. 

Of the personal history of Jude we can say nothing, ex- 
cept that, with his brethren, he did not believe upon the 
Lord (John, vii. 5) until after the Resurrection. Eusebius 



280 A HAND-BOOK OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 

records an anecdote of two of bis grandsons, but it is of 
not much importance. 

A few doubts have been cast upon the authenticity of 
this Epistle, but the weight of evidence is so decidedly in 
its favor that the doubts do not claim particular consid- 
eration. 

As to where Jude wrote we are entirely in the dark, 
knowing so little of the author's life. Alford conjectures 
Palestine. 

As to what particular body of converts his Epistle was 
addressed we are equally at fault. We can only say that, 
though entitled u General," it was especially intended for 
some circle of Jewish Christians living in contact with the 
grossest corruptions of the age. These, acting upon the 
contiguous Church, gave birth to the false teachers equal- 
ly reprobated by St. Peter and our author, 
. The date of this Epistle we place somewhere between 
the years 63 and 67. Greater definiteness can not be at- 
tained. 

The relation between Jude, 3-16, and 2 Peter, ii., 1-19, 
has already been noticed in the chapter on the Second 
Epistle of St. Peter. The priority and originality of the 
Epistle of Jude as a composition were there conceded. 
The following passage from Alford is confirmatory of the 
position taken, and affords a fine comment upon the style 
of St. Jude : 

"In verse 11, the Apostle, fervidly borne along in his 
impassioned invective, collects together three instances of 
Old Testament transgressors, to all of whom he compares 
those whom he is stigmatizing. They were murderers like 



A HAND-BOOK OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 281 

Cain, covetous like Balaam, rebellious like Korah. But 
out of these St. Peter, dealing with /a fee teachers, whom lie 
is comparing with the false prophets of old, selects Balaam 
only, and goes at length (verses 15, 16) into his sin and his 
rebuke. Can any one persuade us that in the impetuous 
whirlwind of St. Jude's invective he adopted and abridged 
the example furnished by St. Peter (ii. 15), prefixing and 
adding those of Cain and Korah V 9 

The design of the Epistle is apparently the same as that 
of the Second Epistle of Peter. Bishop Tomline thus sums 
up the contents : 

"St. Jude, after saluting the Christian converts, and 
praying for divine blessings upon them, exhorts them earn- 
estly to contend for the genuine faith as delivered origin- 
ally to the saints, in opposition to the erroneous doctrines 
taught by false teachers ; he reminds the Christians of the 
severity of God's judgments inflicted upon the apostate an- 
gels and unrighteous men of former times ; from these ex- 
amples he warns them against adopting the seducing prin- 
ciples of those who were endeavoring to pervert them from 
the truth, and denounces woe against all persons of impi- 
ous and profligate character ; he reminds them of the pre- 
dictions of the Apostles concerning mockers in the last 
days, and exhorts them to preserve themselves in the true 
faith and love of God, and to use their best exertions for 
the preservation and recovery of others. He then con- 
cludes with an animated doxology suited to the general 
design of the Epistle." 

The prophecy of Enoch (verses 14, 15) is found in an 
apocryphal book of that name well known to the Fathers. 



282 A HAND-BOOK OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 

The Greek Church long preserved fragments of it. An 
Ethiopic Version of the whole book, however, was discov- 
ered by Bruce, and carried to England the latter part of 
the last century. This has been published both in En- 
gland and Germany. "The book consists," says Alford, 
"of revelations purporting to have been given to Enoch 
and to Noah ; and its object is to vindicate the ways of 
Divine Providence ; to set forth the terrible retribution 
reserved for sinners, whether angelic or human ; and to 
'repeat in every form the great principle that the world, 
natural, moral, and spiritual, is under the immediate gov- 
ernment of God.' " The date of the book of Enoch is un- 
certain. Some attribute it to an ante, and some to a post 
Christian period. We are unable, therefore, to decide 
which borrowed from the other, or whether, indeed, each 
did not draw upon some independent and early authority. 
• The incident of the dispute about the body of Moses 
(verse 9) Alford holds " most likely to have been a frag- 
ment of primitive tradition." 

On this subject Townsend observes: "Throughout the 
Apostolical writings there are many facts alluded to which 
are not recorded in the Jewish Scriptures : the sin and pun- 
ishment of the evil angels (2 Peter, ii. 4) ; Noah's preach- 
ing righteousness to the people before the flood (2 Peter, 
ii.5); Abraham's seeing Christ's day (John, viii. 56); Lot's 
vexation at the iniquity of the Sodomites (2 Peter, ii. 7) ; 
the emblematical purpose of the slaying of the Egyptians 
by Moses (Acts, vii. 25) ; the names of Pharaoh's magi- 
cians (2 Tim., iii. 8) ; Moses's exclamation on the Mount 
(Heb.,xii. 21); with many others: which things seem to 



A HAND-BOOK OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 283 

prove beyond a doubt that the inspired writers of the Old 
Testament did not record all the revelations made to them 
by God, any more than they related every event in the 
lives of those persons whose histories they have written." 
All the facts recorded in Scripture, we may add, rest upon 
the authority of the inspired writers — an authority which 
must be deemed amply sufficient. 

Another point in this Epistle is worthy of particular 
notice. From the author's allusion to the gainsaying of 
Core (verse 11) it is apparent that the same sin (schism) 
which Corah committed in the Jewish Church can like- 
wise be committed in the Christian Church ; else the illus- 
tration would not be apposite. It is a point which should 
be remembered by those who maintain that the sin x)f 
schism can not now be committed. So far from the latter 
being the case, St. Jude clearly admonishes all Christians 
to avoid the sins of false doctrine, heresy, and schism,* by 
enjoining upon them the duty of building themselves up in 
their most holy faith, and keeping themselves in the love 
of God, who only is able to keep them from falling. 

The style of St. Jude's Epistle is forensic, and marked 
by great oratorical power. Lauerman thinks that the 
writer was well versed in that species of composition, and 

* False doctrine is unintentional error, fallen into through igno- 
rance and not willfully held. Heresy is corruption of doctrine, or 
open denial of the true faith. Schism is violation of order, or rend- 
ing of the body of Christ. They are apt to run into each other, and 
no person guilty of one can be sure that he will not end in being 
guilty of all. Hence each one of these sins is severely reprobated 
by the Apostles in their several Epistles, and by our Saviour Him- 
self in the Revelation. 



284 A HAND-BOOK OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 

that he sometimes "rises to a height that can not easily 
be paralleled." This is eminently true of his invective, 
which perhaps exceeds every thing of the kind known. 
The concluding doxology is remarkable for its grandeur 
and energy, and may be compared with those of St. Paul. 



CHAPTER XXXV. 

THE REVELATION OF ST. JOHN THE DIVINE. 

St. John was banished to Patmos by Doinitian, in the 
last year of his reign, a.d. 96. The place thus distin- 
guished for all time was a small rocky island, one of the 
Sporades, and lay south of Samos, in the centre of the Ica- 
rian Sea, and not far from the Roman Province of Asia. 
It was frequently employed by the Emperors, on account 
of its desolate character, as a place of punishment for those 
who had the misfortune to incur their displeasure. The 
modern name is Patimo, or Palmosa. A cave is still point- 
ed out by the inhabitants as the traditional spot where 
the Apostle was "in the Spirit on the Lord's day." 

During St. John's seclusion in Patmos he received and 
committed to writing the Revelation which bears his name. 
It is probable that he published it shortly after his return 
to Ephesus, whither he went, on his recall from banish- 
ment, on the death of Domitian, and the accession ofNer- 
va, a.d. 96. 

The Apocalypse, or Revelation, was the last book ad- 
mitted into the Canon of the New Testament. Notwith- 
standing, as Lowman observes, " hardly any one book has 
received more early, more authentic, and more satisfacto- 
ry attestations." The mysteriousness of its contents was 
doubtless the cause of the delay exhibited in receiving it. 
The same cause unfitted it to be read publicly, or even 



286 A HAND-BOOK OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 

generally, and explains why fewer copies of the Apoca- 
lypse have been handed down than of any other book in 
the New Testament. 

We do not deem it necessary to enter further inro ques- 
tions concerning the genuineness, authenticity, and canon- 
icity of this book — by whom, when, or where it was writ- 
ten. Alford has elaborately unfolded and discussed all 
these points, and arrived at the conclusions above set forth 
—viz., that St. John, the Apostle and Evangelist, author 
of the Gospel and three Epistles, wrote "in the Spirit" 
the Revelation, in the Greek language, when he was in 
banishment in the Island of Patmos, a.d. 96. This, we 
may add, has ever been the constant opinion of the Church. 

Until lately, the original text of the Revelation was in a 
more confused state than that of any other portion of the 
Greek Testament. This proceeded from the Received Text, 
which abounds with erroneous readings, having been fol- 
lowed for many years. But this is no longer the case. 
Tischendorf, Tregelles, and Alford have each resorted to 
MS. authority, and revised the text upon critical princi- 
ples. The edition of Alford is the latest ; and as he was 
aided by the last-published collation of the Codex Vatica- 
nus, and had partial access to the Codex Sinaiticus, it is 
the finest extant, and as nearly correct as may be. 

The Revelation is acknowledged by all to be the most 
sublime portion of the New Testament. In style it resem- 
bles the other writings of St. John, though it is far less 
pure. "It abounds," says Townsend, "with Hebraisms, 
and with images derived from the Jewish traditions and 
peculiarities ; whereas the Gospel and Epistles of St. John 



A HAND-BOOK OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 287 

are written both correctly and elegantly," though not clas- 
sically, as the first four verses of St. Luke's Gospel. " It 
is true the three books are proved to be the work of the 
same author, by their general agreement both in style and 
expression. Numerous instances of this coincidence have 
been collected ; but the chief barbarisms of the Apocalypse 
are to be found neither in the Epistles nor in the Gospel 
of St. John. In this respect they are remarkably distin- 
guished from each other." The " roughnesses and sole- 
cisms in the Apocalypse have been shown by Davidson," 
says Alford, " to have been very much exaggerated : there 
are hardly any which may not be paralleled in classical 
authors themselves, and their occurrence is no more than 
is due to the subject and occasion." He afterward avers 
that the diversity between the Greek of the Gospel and 
the Greek of the Apocalypse must be sought in u psycho- 
logical considerations." He is not alone in this opinion. 

" The occasion of writing the Apocalypse," says Home, 
" is sufficiently evident from the book itself. John, being 
in exile in the island of Patmos, is favored with the ap- 
pearance of the Lord Jesus Christ to him, and is com- 
manded to commit to writing the visions which he beheld. 

" The scope or design of the book is twofold : first, gen- 
erally to make known to the Apostle ' the things which are' 
(chap. i. 19), that is, the then present state of the Chris- 
tian Churches in Asia ; and secondly, and principally, to 
reveal to him i the things which shall be hereafter,' or the 
constitution and fates of the Christian Church through its 
several periods of propagation, corruption, and amendment, 
from its beginning to its consummation in glory." 



288 A HAND-BOOK OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 

" The prophecy of the Revelation/' adds Daubuz, " was 
designed as a standing monument to the Church, to know 
what destinies attend it ; and that, when men should suf- 
fer for the name of Christ, they might here find some con- 
solation both for themselves and for the Church : for them- 
selves, by the prospect and certainty of a reward ; for the 
Church, by the testimony that Christ never forsakes it, but 
will conquer at last." 

The following analysis of the Apocalypse is principally 
derived from Home's Introduction : 

PART I.— i.-iv. 

THE THINGS WHICH ARE. 

Sect. 1. Introduction (i. 1-3). 

The Epistle of John to the seven churches, and his account 

of the appearance of the Lord Jesus — His eternity — John's com- 
mission to write (i. 4-20). 
Sect. 2. Epistle to the angel of the Church of Ephesus (ii. 1-7), 

No. 1. 
Sect. 3. Epistle to the angel of the Church of Smyrna (ii. 8-11), 

No. 2. 
Sect. 4. Epistle to the angel of the Church of Pergamos (ii. 12-17), 

No. 3. 
Sect. 5. Epistle to the angel of the Church of Thyatira (ii. 18-29), 

No. 4. 
Sect. 6. Epistle to the angel of the Church of Sardis (iii. 1-6), No. 5. 
Sect. 7. Epistle to the angel of the Church of Philadelphia (iii. 7- 

13), No. 6. 
Sect. 8. Epistle to the angel of the Church of Laodicea (iii. 14-22), 

No. 7. 

The seven churches of proconsular Asia were probably 
planted by or under the direction of St. Paul. The names 
of the angels — apostles — who were in charge of the Asi- 
atic churches are, with one or two exceptions, unknown. 



A HAND-BOOK OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 289 

Timothy, it is not improbable, was the angel of the Church 
of Ephesus ; and Polycarp, the well-known disciple of St. 
John, the angel of the Church of Smyrna. " It is observ- 
able,-' says Wordsworth, "that in the original Greek of 
the Revelation the epithets assigned to the several church- 
es agree in gender wdth the word angel, and not with the 
word church, so that the Holy Spirit seems emphatically 
to identify each church with its respective president." 
" We read," remarks St. Jerome, " the Apocalypse of the 
Apostle John, in which the angels of the church.es are 
praised for the virtues, or censured for the vices of those 
over whom they are said to preside." The Epistles ap- 
pear to be twofold — addressed, first, to the angels them- 
selves personally; and, second, through them to the church- 
es. And though written to the angels of particular church- 
es, they are adapted, in some measure, to all Christians. 
" He that hath an ear, let him hear what the Spirit saith 
unto the churches." 

PART II.— iv.-xxii. • 

THE THINGS WHICH SHALL BE. 

Sect. 1. The representation of the divine glory in heaven (iv.). 
Sect. 2. The sealed book, the Lamb who opens it, and the praises 

sung by the heavenly choir (v.). 
Sect. 3. The opening of the first six seals (vi. vii.). 
1st seal, Vision of the White Horse. 
2d seal, Vision of the Red Horse. 
3d seal, Vision of the Black Horse. 
4th seal, Vision of the Pale Horse. 
5th seal, Cry of the Souls under the Altar. 
6th seal, Great earthquake, followed by the change in the 
sun and moon, the falling of the stars, the rolling up of heaven, 
and universal horror at the day of the wrath of the Lamb. Vi- 

T 



290 A HAND-BOOK OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 

sion of the four angels holding the four winds, and the angel 
from the East. Sealing of the 144,000, and the presentation 
of the white-robed palm-bearing multitude before the throne. 
Vision explained (vii.). 
Sect. 4. 7th seal, Silence. Vision of the seven angels with the seven 

trumpets, and the angel with the golden censer. 
1st trumpet, third part of all trees and grass destroyed by fire 

and hail. 
2d trumpet, third part of all ships and fishes destroyed by the 

burning mountain cast into the sea. 
3d trumpet, Star Wormwood cast upon the fountains to corrupt 

them. 
4th trumpet, third part of the sun, moon, and stars smitten. 

Vision of the flying angel, and the denunciation of the three 

woes. 
5th trumpet, first woe. Bottomless pit opened. Fierce locusts 

go forth under Apollyon and afflict men. 
6th trumpet, second woe. Vision of the loosing of the four an- 
gels, bound in the Euphrates. Army of horsemen destroy the 

third part of men. Vision of the angel standing upon the 

sea and upon the land. The seven thunders — unwritten. 

Angel swears time shall be no longer. Vision of the little 

book— the measuring of the temple — the two witnesses — 

Glory to God. 
Sect. 5. 7th trumpet sounds. Vision of the woman persecuted by 
the dragon, and of the wild beasts from the sea and the land 
(ix. 15 ; xiii;). 
Sect. 6. Vision of the Lamb and the 144,000 elect on Mount Zion, 
and the proclamations or warnings. 

i. The Lamb on Mount Zion (xiv. 1-5). 

ii. The first angel proclaims (6, 7). 

iii. The second angel proclaims (8). 

iv. The third angel proclaims (9-12). 
. v. The blessedness of those who die in the Lord (13). 

vi. The vision of the harvest and vintage (14-20). 
Sect. 7. Vision of the seven vials, and the episode of the harlot of 
Babylon and her fall. 

i. Vision preparatory (xv. ; xvi. 1). 

ii. The pouring out of the seven vials (2-21). 

iii. The great harlot (xvii.). 



A HAND-BOOK OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 291 

iv. The judgment of Babylon (xviii.). 
v. Exultation over the fallen Babylon, and the approach of 
the Lamb (xix. 1-10). 
Sect. 8. The grand conflict — the millennium— the conflict renewed 
— the judgment — the new creation. 

i. The appearance of the Lord with His followers (xix. 

11-18). 
ii. The conflict and victory over the beast and false prophet 

(19-21). 
iii. Satan bound, and the Millennium (xx. 1-6). 
iv. Satan loosed, deceives the nations, cast into the lake of 

fire (xx. 7-10). 
v. General Kesurrection and Judgment (11-15). 
Sect. 9. Description of the New Jerusalem (xxi.-xxii. 5). 
Sect, 10. Conclusion (xxii. 6-21). 

It is not intended here to attempt any explanation of 
the prophecies contained in this mysterious book. No part 
of Scripture "has been more commented on," says Home, 
"or-fcas given rise to a greater variety of interpretations, 
than the Apocalypse, which has ever been accounted the 
most difficult part of the New Testament. The figurative 
language in which the visions are delivered; the variety 
of symbols under which the events are presignified ; the 
extent of the prophetical information, which appears to 
pervade all ages of the Christian Church, afford little hope 
of its elucidation at present. 

"Many parts of the Apocalypse/' continues Home, "are 
necessarily obscure to us, because they contain predictions 
of events still future, yet enough is sufficiently clear to con-* 
vey to us the most important religious instruction. This 
book is to us precisely what the prophecies of the Old 
Testament were to the Jews, nor is it in any degree more 
inexplicable." 



292 A HAND-BOOK OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 

"No prophecies in the Revelation," says Gilpin, "can 
be more clouded with obscurity than that a child should 
be born of a pure Virgin — that a mortal should not see 
corruption — that a person despised and numbered among 
malefactors should be established forever on the Throne of 
David. Yet still the pious Jeiv preserved his faith entire 
amidst all these wonderful and, in appearance, contradic- 
tory intimations. He looked into the holy books in which 
they were contained with reverence, and with an eye of 
patient expectation ' waited for the consolation of Israel.' 
We in the same manner look up to the prophecies of the 
Apocalypse for the full consummation of the great scheme 
of the Gospel, when Christianity shall finally prevail over 
all the corruptions of the world, and be universally estab- 
lished in its utmost purity." 

The Revelation closes with an anathema against alHvho 
shall add unto or take away from the w r ords of the Book 
of this Prophecy. Owing to the Revelation being the 
closing Book of the Canon of Scripture, some have treated 
this anathema as applying to all who may add to or sub- 
tract from the whole Bible ; others, to any wdio may add 
to or take away from the text of this particular Book. 
The former exegesis is clearly unwarrantable. In regard 
to the latter Alford remarks : " The adding and the tak- 
ing away are in the application and reception in the heart. 
All must be received and realized." The comment is ap- 
plicable to the whole Testament. 

We add the final benediction to the Church, according 
to the reading of the Codex Sinaiticus : 

The grace of the Lord Jesus be with the Saints. 



CHAPTER XXXVI. 

CONCLUSION. 

The New Testament having been thus considered in its 
various parts, it only remains to add one or two reflec- 
tions which the subject suggests before taking leave of the 
reader. So much has already been said on the scope and 
design of the New Testament, so frequent and familiar are 
eulogies in regard to it, that to enlarge further upon those 
points would be superfluous. 

Although the surpassing excellence of the New Testa- 
ment is universally acknowledged, and it is every where 
revered as the law and the testimony to which all good 
men will defer, it must ever be borne in mind that, how- 
ever noble the Book may be as a composition, however 
beautiful its language, however pure its morality, however 
sublime the religion which it inculcates, the only just com- 
pliment that can be paid to it, the only true honor that 
can be conferred upon it, by man, is to use it. Neither the 
mere possession of the Sacred Volume nor the simple in- 
tellectual appreciation of its worth, and admiration of its 
wonderful beauty, avail any thing. It is only the faithful 
use of the N^fv Testament which will profit. 

" Believe in the Lord Jesus Christ, and thou shalt be 
saved," is, in brief, the sum of the New Testament. A 
sincere belief involves the full recognition of man's sinful- 



294 A HAND-BOOK OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 

ness, and the personal application of Christ as the gracious 
means w T hereby alone man may be restored. The mode 
by which Christ's merits are appropriated is faith, faith 
which worketh by love. Such a faith will exhibit itself 
in an earnest desire to find out His will and perform it, to 
know Him and keep His commandments. The import- 
ance, therefore, of the study of the Volume which contains 
His will can not be overestimated. The more, too, that it 
is studied, the greater will be the admiration which it will 
excite, and the stronger the attachment which it will in- 
duce. 

Mere bibliolatry, however, is to be avoided. It is the 
life of the Book which must be apprehended. Not men- 
tal only, but spiritual cultivation must be the object — the 
fitting the man>to be the "temple of the Holy Ghost." 
Knowledge alone is insufficient for such a purpose. Man 
must be built up in faith, enlivened by hope, and warmed 
by charity, that he may be fully edified. The intellectual 
nature need not be neglected, for true " edification con- 
sists in the improvement of the whole man. To edify the 
soul is not merely to lay the foundations of a good charac- 
ter, not merely to raise the superstructure, but to improve 
the spiritual being in every excellence."* 

With this principle in view, every study will be useful, 
all valuable and proper in their places ; but none will com- 
pare in excellence with the study of the Scriptures, for 
they teach the way of the Lord, they point t>ut the path 
to heaven. 

Be wise then unto salvation. "Spend not your time 
* Professor Park, Bib. Sac, ii. 41. 



A HAND-BOOK OP THE NEW TESTAMENT. 295 

in that which profits not ; for your labor and your health, 
your time and your studies are valuable ; and it is a thou- 
sand pities to see a diligent and hopeful person spend him- 
self in gathering cockle-shells and little pebbles, in telling 
sands upon the shores, and making garlands of useless dai- 
sies. Study that which is profitable, that which will make 
you useful to churches and commonwealths, that which 
will make you desirable and wise. Only I shall add this 
to you, that in learning there are variety of things as well 
as in religion : there is mint and cummin, and there are 
the weighty things of the law ; so there are studies more 
and less useful, and every thing that is useful will be re- 
quired in its time ; and I may in this also use the w r ords 
of our blessed Saviour : i These things ought you to look 
after, and not to leave the other unregarded.' But your 
great care is to be in the things of God and of religion, in 
holiness and true wisdom, remembering the saying of Ori- 
gen, 'That knowledge that arises from goodness (Matt., 
xix. 17) is something that is more certain and more divine 
than all demonstration' — than all other learnings of the 
world."* 

* Jfererav Taylor. 



THE END. v ^. 



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